Continuous intra-arterial blood gas monitoring in rats

Optical Sensing and Imaging of pH Values: Spectroscopies, Materials, and Applications

This is the first comprehensive review on methods and materials for use in optical sensing of pH values and on applications of such sensors. The Review starts with an introduction that contains subsections on the definition of the pH value, a brief look back on optical methods for sensing of pH, on the effects of ionic strength on pH values and pKa values, on the selectivity, sensitivity, precision, dynamic ranges, and temperature dependence of such sensors. Commonly used optical sensing schemes are covered in a next main chapter, with subsections on methods based on absorptiometry, reflectometry, luminescence, refractive index, surface plasmon resonance, photonic crystals, turbidity, mechanical displacement, interferometry, and solvatochromism. This is followed by sections on absorptiometric and luminescent molecular probes for use pH in sensors. Further large sections cover polymeric hosts and supports, and methods for immobilization of indicator dyes. Further and more specific sections summarize the state of the art in materials with dual functionality (indicator and host), nanomaterials, sensors based on upconversion and 2-photon absorption, multiparameter sensors, imaging, and sensors for extreme pH values. A chapter on the many sensing formats has subsections on planar, fiber optic, evanescent wave, refractive index, surface plasmon resonance and holography based sensor designs, and on distributed sensing. Another section summarizes selected applications in areas, such as medicine, biology, oceanography, bioprocess monitoring, corrosion studies, on the use of pH sensors as transducers in biosensors and chemical sensors, and their integration into flow-injection analyzers, microfluidic devices, and lab-on-a-chip systems. An extra section is devoted to current challenges, with subsections on challenges of general nature and those of specific nature. A concluding section gives an outlook on potential future trends and perspectives.

Enhancing analytical accuracy of intravascular electrochemical oxygen sensors via nitric oxide release using S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine (SNAP) impregnated catheter tubing

Implantable medical devices are an integral part of primary/critical care. However, these devices carry a high risk for blood clots, caused by platelet aggregation on a foreign body surface. This study focuses on the development of a simplified approach to create nitric oxide (NO) releasing intravascular electrochemical oxygen (O₂) sensors with increased biocompatibility and analytical accuracy. The implantable sensors are prepared by embedding S-nitroso-N-acetylpenacillamine (SNAP) as the NO donor molecule in the walls of the catheter type sensors. The SNAP-impregnated catheters were prepared by swelling silicone rubber tubing in a tetrahydrofuran solution containing SNAP. Control and SNAP-impregnated catheters were used to fabricate the Clark-style amperometric PO₂ sensors. The SNAP-impregnated sensors release NO under physiological conditions for 18 d as measured by chemiluminescence. The analytical response of the SNAP-impregnated sensors was evaluated in vitro and in vivo. Rabbit and swine models (with sensors placed in both veins and arteries) were used to evaluate the effects on thrombus formation and analytical in vivo PO₂ sensing performance. The SNAP-impregnated PO₂ sensors were found to more accurately measure PO₂ levels in blood continuously (over 7 and 20 h animal experiments) with significantly reduced thrombus formation (as compared to controls) on their surfaces.

An in vivo quantitative Raman-pH sensor of arterial blood based on laser trapping of erythrocytes

A continuous and noninvasive approach is appliedin vivoto measure the arterial blood pH quantitatively.

Monitoring of renal venous PO2 and kidney oxygen consumption in rats by a near-infrared phosphorescence lifetime technique

Renal oxygen consumption (Vo(2,ren)) is an important parameter that has been shown to be influenced by various pathophysiological circumstances. Vo(2,ren) has to be repeatedly measured during an experiment to gain insight in the dynamics of (dys)regulation of oxygen metabolism. In small animals, the classical approach of blood gas analysis of arterial and venous blood samples is only limitedly applicable due to fragile vessels and a low circulating blood volume. We present a phosphorescence lifetime technique that allows near-continuous measurement of renal venous Po(2) (vPo(2)) and Vo(2,ren) in rats. The technique does not rely on penetration of the blood vessel, but uses a small reflection probe. This probe is placed in close proximity to the renal vein for detection of the oxygen-dependent phosphorescence of the injected water-soluble near-infrared phosphor Oxyphor G2. The technique was calibrated in vitro and the calibration constants were validated in vivo in anesthetized and mechanically ventilated male Wistar rats. The hemoglobin saturation curve and its pH dependency were determined for calculation of renal venous oxygen content. The phosphorescence technique was in good agreement with blood gas analysis of renal venous blood samples, for both Po(2) and hemoglobin saturation. To demonstrate its feasibility in practice, the technique was used in four rats during endotoxin infusion (10 mg x kg(-1) x h(-1) during 1 h). Renal vPo(2) reduced by 40% upon reduction in oxygen delivery to 30% of baseline, but Vo(2) remained unchanged. This study documents the feasibility of near-continuous, nondestructive measurement of renal vPo(2) and Vo(2) by oxygen-dependent quenching of phosphorescence.

Partial liquid ventilation in acute salt water-induced lung injury

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Salt-water aspiration results in pulmonary oedema and hypoxia. We tested the hypothesis that partial liquid ventilation has beneficial effects on gas exchange and rate of survival in acute and extended salt water-induced lung injury.

METHODS

Anaesthetized, ventilated rats (tidal volume 6 mL kg(-1), PEEP 5 cmH2O) received a tracheal salt-water instillation (3%, 8 mL kg(-1) body weight) and were randomly assigned to three groups (n = 10 per group). While lungs of Group 1 were gas-ventilated, lungs of Group 2 received a single perfluorocarbon instillation (30 min after the injury, 5 mL kg(-1) perfluorocarbon) and lungs of Group 3 received an additional continuous perfluorocarbon application into the treachea (5 mL kg(-1) h(-1)) Arterial blood gases were measured with an intravascular blood gas sensor.

RESULTS

Salt-water instillation resulted in a marked decrease in PaO2 values within 30 min (from 432 +/- 65 to 83 +/- 40 mmHg, FiO2 = 1.0, P < 0.01). Arterial oxygenation improved in all three groups irrespective of treatment. We observed no significant differences between groups in peak PaO2 and PaCO2 values.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that partial liquid ventilation has no additional beneficial effects on gas exchange after life-threatening salt water-induced lung injury when compared to conventional gas ventilation with positive end-expiratory pressure.

Hydrochloric acid-induced lung injury: effects of early partial liquid ventilation on survival rate, gas exchange, and pulmonary neutrophil accumulation

OBJECTIVE

Partial liquid ventilation can improve respiratory functions in acid-induced lung injury. We studied the effects of the interval between induction of injury and initiation of partial liquid ventilation on survival, gas exchange, and pulmonary neutrophil accumulation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Anesthetized rats were randomly assigned to one of five groups ( n = 6 per group). Group 1 served as the control group, in the other groups an extended lung injury was induced by intratracheal instillation of hydrochloric acid. Whereas lungs of group 2 were gas-ventilated, group 3 received an early partial liquid ventilation (5 min after acid instillation) and group 4 a delayed partial liquid ventilation (30 min after acid instillation, 5 ml/kg perfluorocarbon). Group 5 received an additional continuous perfluorocarbon application of 5 ml x kg(-1) x h(-1) (30 min after acid instillation). Blood gases were measured with an intravascular blood gas sensor.

RESULTS

Acid instillation resulted in a marked decrease in PO(2)-values within 30 min (from 481+/-37 mmHg to 128+/-71 mmHg, FiO(2) 1.0). Survival rate of the study period (12 h) was higher with early partial liquid ventilation. We observed no differences between groups in peak PO(2)-values during treatment. Histopathological examination, however, showed less pulmonary neutrophil accumulation in lungs of the early partial liquid ventilation group when compared to the delayed partial liquid ventilation group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that early partial liquid ventilation increases survival after extended acid-induced lung injury. While effects on arterial oxygenation appear not to predict acute survival we observed less intrapulmonary neutrophil accumulation with early partial liquid ventilation.