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Paulino LRFM, de Assis EIT, Azevedo VAN, Silva BR, da Cunha EV, Silva JRV. Why Is It So Difficult To Have Competent Oocytes from In vitro Cultured Preantral Follicles? Reprod Sci 2022; 29:3321-3334. [PMID: 35084715 DOI: 10.1007/s43032-021-00840-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The developmental competence of oocytes is acquired gradually during follicular development, mainly through oocyte accumulation of RNA molecules and proteins that will be used during fertilization and early embryonic development. Several attempts to develop in vitro culture systems to support preantral follicle development up to maturation are reported in the literature, but oocyte competence has not yet been achieved in human and domestic animals. The difficulties to have fertilizable oocytes are related to thousands of mRNAs and proteins that need to be synthesized, long-term duration of follicular development, size of preovulatory follicles, composition of in vitro culture medium, and the need of multi-step culture systems. The development of a culture system that maintains bidirectional communication between the oocyte and granulosa cells and that meets the metabolic demands of each stage of follicle growth is the key to sustain an extended culture period. This review discusses the physiological and molecular mechanisms that determine acquisition of oocyte competence in vitro, like oocyte transcriptional activity, follicle and oocyte sizes, and length and regulation of follicular development in murine, human, and domestic animal species. The state of art of in vitro follicular development and the challenges to have complete follicular development in vitro are also highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laís R F M Paulino
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Physiology of Reproduction (LABIREP), Federal University of Ceara, Av. Comandante Maurocélio Rocha Ponte 100, Sobral, CE, CEP 62041-040, Brazil
| | - Ernando I T de Assis
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Physiology of Reproduction (LABIREP), Federal University of Ceara, Av. Comandante Maurocélio Rocha Ponte 100, Sobral, CE, CEP 62041-040, Brazil
| | - Venância A N Azevedo
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Physiology of Reproduction (LABIREP), Federal University of Ceara, Av. Comandante Maurocélio Rocha Ponte 100, Sobral, CE, CEP 62041-040, Brazil
| | - Bianca R Silva
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Physiology of Reproduction (LABIREP), Federal University of Ceara, Av. Comandante Maurocélio Rocha Ponte 100, Sobral, CE, CEP 62041-040, Brazil
| | - Ellen V da Cunha
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Physiology of Reproduction (LABIREP), Federal University of Ceara, Av. Comandante Maurocélio Rocha Ponte 100, Sobral, CE, CEP 62041-040, Brazil
| | - José R V Silva
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Physiology of Reproduction (LABIREP), Federal University of Ceara, Av. Comandante Maurocélio Rocha Ponte 100, Sobral, CE, CEP 62041-040, Brazil.
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Ito H, Emori C, Kobayashi M, Maruyama N, Fujii W, Naito K, Sugiura K. Cooperative effects of oocytes and estrogen on the forkhead box L2 expression in mural granulosa cells in mice. Sci Rep 2022; 12:20158. [PMID: 36424497 PMCID: PMC9691737 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24680-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Forkhead box L2 (FOXL2) plays a critical role in the development and function of mammalian ovaries. In fact, the causative effects of FOXL2 misregulations have been identified in many ovarian diseases, such as primary ovarian insufficiency and granulosa cell tumor; however, the mechanism by which FOXL2 expression is regulated is not well studied. Here, we showed that FOXL2 expression in ovarian mural granulosa cells (MGCs) requires stimulation by both oocyte-derived signals and estrogen in mice. In the absence of oocytes or estrogen, expression of FOXL2 and its transcriptional targets, Cyp19a1 and Fst mRNA, in MGCs were significantly decreased. Moreover, expression levels of Sox9 mRNA, but not SOX9 protein, were significantly increased in the FOXL2-reduced MGCs. FOXL2 expression in MGCs was maintained with either oocytes or recombinant proteins of oocyte-derived paracrine factors, BMP15 and GDF9, together with estrogen, and this oocyte effect was abrogated with an ALK5 inhibitor, SB431542. In addition, the FOXL2 level was significantly decreased in MGCs isolated from Bmp15-/- /Gdf9+/- mice. Therefore, oocyte, probably with estrogen, plays a critical role in the regulation of FOXL2 expression in mural granulosa cells in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruka Ito
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XLaboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chihiro Emori
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XLaboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan ,grid.136593.b0000 0004 0373 3971Present Address: Department of Experimental Genome Research, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Mei Kobayashi
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XLaboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Natsumi Maruyama
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XLaboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Wataru Fujii
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XLaboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kunihiko Naito
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XLaboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koji Sugiura
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XLaboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Rossitto M, Déjardin S, Rands CM, Le Gras S, Migale R, Rafiee MR, Neirijnck Y, Pruvost A, Nguyen AL, Bossis G, Cammas F, Le Gallic L, Wilhelm D, Lovell-Badge R, Boizet-Bonhoure B, Nef S, Poulat F. TRIM28-dependent SUMOylation protects the adult ovary from activation of the testicular pathway. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4412. [PMID: 35906245 PMCID: PMC9338040 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32061-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Gonadal sexual fate in mammals is determined during embryonic development and must be actively maintained in adulthood. In the mouse ovary, oestrogen receptors and FOXL2 protect ovarian granulosa cells from transdifferentiation into Sertoli cells, their testicular counterpart. However, the mechanism underlying their protective effect is unknown. Here, we show that TRIM28 is required to prevent female-to-male sex reversal of the mouse ovary after birth. We found that upon loss of Trim28, ovarian granulosa cells transdifferentiate to Sertoli cells through an intermediate cell type, different from gonadal embryonic progenitors. TRIM28 is recruited on chromatin in the proximity of FOXL2 to maintain the ovarian pathway and to repress testicular-specific genes. The role of TRIM28 in ovarian maintenance depends on its E3-SUMO ligase activity that regulates the sex-specific SUMOylation profile of ovarian-specific genes. Our study identifies TRIM28 as a key factor in protecting the adult ovary from the testicular pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moïra Rossitto
- Institute of Human Genetics, CNRS UMR9002 University of Montpellier, 34396, Montpellier, France
- Univ. Bordeaux, INRAE, Bordeaux INP, NutriNeuro, UMR 1286, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Stephanie Déjardin
- Institute of Human Genetics, CNRS UMR9002 University of Montpellier, 34396, Montpellier, France
| | - Chris M Rands
- Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, lab E09.2750.B 1, rue Michel-Servet CH 1211 Geneva 4, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stephanie Le Gras
- GenomEast platform, IGBMC, 1, rue Laurent Fries, 67404 ILLKIRCH Cedex, Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France
| | - Roberta Migale
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London, NW1 2 1AT, UK
| | | | - Yasmine Neirijnck
- Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, lab E09.2750.B 1, rue Michel-Servet CH 1211 Geneva 4, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Alain Pruvost
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Anvi Laetitia Nguyen
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Guillaume Bossis
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier (IGMM), University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Florence Cammas
- Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, IRCM, INSERM U1194, Université de Montpellier, Institut régional du Cancer de Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34298, France
| | - Lionel Le Gallic
- Institute of Human Genetics, CNRS UMR9002 University of Montpellier, 34396, Montpellier, France
| | - Dagmar Wilhelm
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | | | | | - Serge Nef
- Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, lab E09.2750.B 1, rue Michel-Servet CH 1211 Geneva 4, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Francis Poulat
- Institute of Human Genetics, CNRS UMR9002 University of Montpellier, 34396, Montpellier, France.
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EMORI C, KANKE T, ITO H, AKIMOTO Y, FUJII W, NAITO K, SUGIURA K. Expression and regulation of estrogen receptor 2 and its coregulators in mouse granulosa cells. J Reprod Dev 2022; 68:137-143. [PMID: 35046244 PMCID: PMC8979806 DOI: 10.1262/jrd.2021-114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The cooperative effects of estrogen and oocyte-derived paracrine factors (ODPFs) play critical roles in the normal development of ovarian follicles; however, the mechanism underlying this
cooperation has not been well studied. The present study aimed to determine whether ODPFs affect estrogen signaling by regulating the expression of estrogen receptor (ESR) and its
coregulators in mouse granulosa cells. Some transcripts encoding ESR coregulators were differentially expressed between cumulus and mural granulosa cells (MGCs). The transcript levels of ESR
coregulators, including nuclear receptor corepressor 1 and activator 2, in cumulus cells were significantly suppressed by ODPFs; however, they increased when cumulus cell-oocyte complexes
were treated with the transforming growth factor beta receptor I inhibitor, SB431542. Moreover, MGCs exhibited significantly higher ESR2 protein and transcript levels than those in cumulus
cells. ODPFs promoted Esr2 expression in cumulus cells but had no effect on that in MGCs. Overall, regulation of the expression of ESR2 and its coregulators in cumulus cells
by oocytes seems to be one of the mechanisms underlying estrogen-oocyte cooperation in well-developed antral follicles in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chihiro EMORI
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Takuya KANKE
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Haruka ITO
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Yuki AKIMOTO
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Wataru FUJII
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Kunihiko NAITO
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Koji SUGIURA
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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5
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Emori C, Ito H, Fujii W, Naito K, Sugiura K. Oocytes suppress FOXL2 expression in cumulus cells in mice†. Biol Reprod 2021; 103:85-93. [PMID: 32307529 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioaa054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cumulus cells and mural granulosa cells (MGCs) play distinct roles during follicular development, and normal development of these cell lineages is critical for the female fertility. Transcriptomic diversification between the two cell lineages is obviously a critical mechanism for their functional diversification; however, the transcriptional regulators responsible for this event have not been fully defined. In this study, we sought to identify key transcriptional regulators responsible for the differential gene expression between the two cell lineages. In silico analysis of transcriptomic comparison between cumulus cells and MGCs identified several candidate regulators responsible for the diversification of the two cell lineages. Among them, we herein focused on forkhead box L2 (FOXL2) and showed that expressions of FOXL2 as well as its target transcripts were differentially regulated between cumulus cells and MGCs. The lower expression of FOXL2 in cumulus cells seemed to be due to the suppression by oocyte-derived paracrine signals. These results suggest that FOXL2 is one of the critical transcription factors that determine cumulus cell and MGC lineages under the control of oocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chihiro Emori
- Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Haruka Ito
- Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Wataru Fujii
- Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kunihiko Naito
- Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koji Sugiura
- Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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6
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Matsuno Y, Maruyama N, Fujii W, Naito K, Sugiura K. Effects of oocyte-derived paracrine factors on release of extracellular vesicles by murine mural granulosa cells in vitro. Anim Sci J 2020; 91:e13385. [PMID: 32515535 PMCID: PMC7378952 DOI: 10.1111/asj.13385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Both oocytes and extracellular vesicles (EV) have emerged as critical regulators of mammalian follicular development; however, the possible interaction between the oocyte‐derived paracrine factor (ODPF) and EV signals has never been examined. Therefore, to explore the possibility of an interaction between oocyte and EV signals, the effects of ODPFs on the biogenesis of EVs as well as the expression levels of transcripts related to EV biogenesis in mural granulosa cells (MGCs) were examined using mice. The results showed that, while oocyte coculture has some effects on the expression levels of transcripts related to EV biogenesis, the number of EV particles present in the conditioned medium were not significantly different between ODPF‐treated and non‐treated MGCs. Therefore, oocytes have no effects on the EV biogenesis by MGCs, at least with respect to the numbers of EV particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Matsuno
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Natsumi Maruyama
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Wataru Fujii
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kunihiko Naito
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koji Sugiura
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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7
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Wu C, Xu B, Li X, Ma W, Zhang P, Chen X, Wu J. Tracing and Characterizing the Development of Transplanted Female Germline Stem Cells In Vivo. Mol Ther 2017; 25:1408-1419. [PMID: 28528817 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2017.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 04/16/2017] [Accepted: 04/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
It has long been believed that most female mammalian species lose the ability to generate oocytes in postnatal ovaries. Recent evidence has demonstrated the isolation and culture of female germline stem cells (FGSCs) from adult mice and humans. However, the process and mechanisms of FGSC differentiation in vivo following transplantation have not yet been studied. Here, we isolated and characterized FGSCs from a single EGFP-transgenic mouse, and traced the development and behavior of transplanted FGSCs (F-TFs) in vivo. Comparisons of folliculogenesis between recipients with FGSC transplantation and wild-type (WT) mice were performed by single follicle RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq). Results showed that FGSCs exhibited a homing ability and began to differentiate into early-stage oocytes only when they reached the edge of the ovarian cortex. The F-TFs restored function of premature ovarian failure (gdf9iCre; PtenloxP/loxP genotype) and generated offspring. Furthermore, results demonstrated that the developmental mechanisms of follicles derived from F-TFs were similar to that of WT follicles. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis identified two potential sub-networks and core genes that played a critical role in follicular development. These findings provide a theoretical basis and lay a technology platform for specific or personalized medical treatment of ovarian failure or other ovarian diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changqing Wu
- Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental & Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education), Bio-X Institutes, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Bo Xu
- Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental & Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education), Bio-X Institutes, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Xiaoyong Li
- Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental & Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education), Bio-X Institutes, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Wenzhi Ma
- Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Ping Zhang
- School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Xuejin Chen
- Department of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Ji Wu
- Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental & Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education), Bio-X Institutes, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China; Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China.
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8
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Matsuno Y, Onuma A, Fujioka YA, Yasuhara K, Fujii W, Naito K, Sugiura K. Effects of exosome-like vesicles on cumulus expansion in pigs in vitro. J Reprod Dev 2017; 63:51-58. [PMID: 28163264 PMCID: PMC5320430 DOI: 10.1262/jrd.2016-124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell-secreted vesicles, such as exosomes, have recently been recognized as mediators of cell communication. A recent study in cattle showed the involvement of exosome-like vesicles in the control of cumulus expansion, a prerequisite process for normal ovulation; however, whether this is the case in other mammalian species is not known. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the presence of exosome-like vesicles in ovarian follicles and their effects on cumulus expansion in vitro in pigs. The presence of exosome-like vesicles in porcine follicular fluid (pFF) was confirmed by transmission electron microscopic observation, the detection of marker proteins, and RNA profiles specific to exosomes. Fluorescently labeled exosome-like vesicles isolated from pFF were incorporated into both cumulus and mural granulosa cells in vitro. Exosome-like vesicles were not capable of inducing cumulus expansion to a degree comparable to that induced by follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Moreover, exosome-like vesicles had no significant effects on the expression levels of transcripts required for the normal expansion process (HAS2, TNFAIP6, and PTGS2). Interestingly, FSH-induced expression of HAS2 and TNFAIP6 mRNA, but not of PTGS2 mRNA, was significantly increased by the presence of exosome-like vesicles; however, the degree of FSH-induced expansion was not affected. In addition, porcine exosome-like vesicles had no significant effects on the expansion of mouse cumulus-oocyte complexes. Collectively, the present results suggest that exosome-like vesicles are present in pFF, but they are not efficient in inducing cumulus expansion in pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Matsuno
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Department of Animal Resource Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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Abstract
Recent discoveries on the delivery of small- and large-size molecules and organelles to the oocytes/eggs from external sources, such as surrounding somatic cells, body fluids, and sperm, change our understanding of female germ cells' (oocytes and eggs) self-containment and individuality. In this chapter, we will summarize present-day knowledge on sources and presumptive functions of different types of exogenous molecules and organelles delivered to the animal oocytes and eggs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata Kloc
- The Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, USA. .,Department of Surgery, The Houston Methodist Hospital, 6550 Fannin St., Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
| | - Jacek Z Kubiak
- CNRS UMR 6290, Cell Cycle Group, Institute of Genetics and Development of Rennes, Rennes, France.,University of Rennes 1, Faculty of Medicine, Rennes, France.,Department of Regenerative Medicine, Military Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology (WIHE), Warsaw, Poland
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