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Mól M, Garrett K, Ruby R, Janes J, Reed S. Equine intervertebral disc disease with dorsal protrusion and spinal cord compression: A computed tomography, myelography, MRI, and histopathologic case study. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2024. [PMID: 38785345 DOI: 10.1111/vru.13388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
A 3-year-old American Saddlebred gelding presented for progressive tetraparesis, ataxia, and cervical hyperaesthesia. Radiographic myelography identified spinal cord compression at C6-7 in neutral, extended, and flexed positions and at C4-5 in the flexed position. CT myelography and postmortem MRI identified severe vertebral canal stenosis/compression at C6-7. MRI further identified severe intervertebral disc herniation at C6-7 with intramedullary changes. Disc protrusion was confirmed macroscopically at postmortem. Lesions consistent with compressive myelopathy were confirmed microscopically at C6-7. This is the first report of equine disc protrusion and myelocompression confirmed by multiple advanced imaging modalities and postmortem examination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Mól
- Paragon Veterinary Referrals, Wakefield, UK
| | | | - Rebecca Ruby
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Jennifer Janes
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Stephen Reed
- Rood & Riddle Equine Hospital, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
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Kondo T, Sato F, Tsuzuki N, Yamada K. Sex differences in cervical spinal cord and spinal canal development in Thoroughbred horses. J Vet Med Sci 2022; 84:1363-1367. [PMID: 35944983 PMCID: PMC9586035 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.22-0234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy (CVSM), a common cause of cervical spinal cord compression, is a neurological disease characterized by general proprioceptive ataxia and weakness of hindlimbs that tends to develop in young adult Thoroughbred horses. Although male horses seem to be at increased risk for CVSM, the mechanism for the occurrence of sex differences in the prevalence of CVSM is still poorly understood. Hence, we hypothesized that sex differences in the development of cervical spinal cord and spinal canal would affect the development of CVSM. This study aimed to evaluate sex differences in the development of cervical spinal cord and spinal canal in Thoroughbred horses. A total of 29 Thoroughbred horses underwent computed tomographic myelography. Thereafter, the volumes of cervical spinal cord and spinal canal were calculated. Accordingly, male horses had significantly lager cervical spinal cord volume and cervical spinal cord-to-spinal canal volume ratio than those of female horses (P<0.05). Sex differences in the cervical spinal cord-to-spinal canal volume ratio gradually decreased until around 1,400 days of age. Younger male horses have narrower interspace between the cervical spinal cord and spinal canal than younger female horses, suggesting that an imbalanced cervical spinal cord and spinal canal growth is one of the causes of CVSM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taro Kondo
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University
| | - Fumio Sato
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association
| | - Nao Tsuzuki
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
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Abstract
Cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy is a common cause of ataxia in horses secondary to spinal cord compression. Early articles describing this problem indicate genetic predisposition as a known risk factor. Further studies have shown the problem is a developmental abnormality which might have genetic predisposition and environmental influences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett Woodie
- Surgery, Rood and Riddle Equine Hospital, 2150 Georgetown Road, Lexington, KY 40511, USA.
| | - Amy L Johnson
- Department of Clinical Studies, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine- New Bolton Center, 382 West Street Road, Kennett Square, PA 19348, USA
| | - Barrie Grant
- 31624 Wrightwood Road, Bonsall, California, 92003-4708, USA
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Rijckaert J, Raes E, Buczinski S, Dumoulin M, Deprez P, Van Ham L, van Loon G, Pardon B. Accuracy of transcranial magnetic stimulation and a Bayesian latent class model for diagnosis of spinal cord dysfunction in horses. J Vet Intern Med 2020; 34:964-971. [PMID: 32030834 PMCID: PMC7096606 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.15699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spinal cord dysfunction/compression and ataxia are common in horses. Presumptive diagnosis is most commonly based on neurological examination and cervical radiography, but the interest into the diagnostic value of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) with recording of magnetic motor evoked potentials has increased. The problem for the evaluation of diagnostic tests for spinal cord dysfunction is the absence of a gold standard in the living animal. OBJECTIVES To compare diagnostic accuracy of TMS, cervical radiography, and neurological examination. ANIMALS One hundred seventy-four horses admitted at the clinic for neurological examination. METHODS Retrospective comparison of neurological examination, cervical radiography, and different TMS criteria, using Bayesian latent class modeling to account for the absence of a gold standard. RESULTS The Bayesian estimate of the prevalence (95% CI) of spinal cord dysfunction was 58.1 (48.3%-68.3%). Sensitivity and specificity of neurological examination were 97.6 (91.4%-99.9%) and 74.7 (61.0%-96.3%), for radiography they were 43.0 (32.3%-54.6%) and 77.3 (67.1%-86.1%), respectively. Transcranial magnetic stimulation reached a sensitivity and specificity of 87.5 (68.2%-99.2%) and 97.4 (90.4%-99.9%). For TMS, the highest accuracy was obtained using the minimum latency time for the pelvic limbs (Youden's index = 0.85). In all evaluated models, cervical radiography performed poorest. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Transcranial magnetic stimulation-magnetic motor evoked potential (TMS-MMEP) was the best test to diagnose spinal cord disease, the neurological examination was the second best, but the accuracy of cervical radiography was low. Selecting animals based on neurological examination (highest sensitivity) and confirming disease by TMS-MMEP (highest specificity) would currently be the optimal diagnostic strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joke Rijckaert
- Department of Large Animal Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Els Raes
- Department of Veterinary medical imaging and small animal orthopedics, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Sebastien Buczinski
- Département des sciences cliniques, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Université de Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada
| | - Michèle Dumoulin
- Department of Surgery and Anaesthesiology of Domestic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Piet Deprez
- Department of Large Animal Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Luc Van Ham
- Small Animal Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gunther van Loon
- Department of Large Animal Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Bart Pardon
- Department of Large Animal Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
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Haussler KK, Pool RR, Clayton HM. Characterization of bony changes localized to the cervical articular processes in a mixed population of horses. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0222989. [PMID: 31557207 PMCID: PMC6762202 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The objectives of this observational, cross-sectional study were to characterize and establish the prevalence of osseous proliferation of articular surfaces, joint margins and adjacent soft tissue attachments (i.e., joint capsule and deep spinal muscles) in a mixed population of horses of variable ages, sizes, and breeds to better capture the full spectrum of disease affecting the cervical articular processes. Cranial and caudal articular processes of the cervical and first three thoracic vertebrae (C2-T3) from 55 horses without a primary complaint of neck pain were evaluated for the presence and severity of abnormal bony changes. Data were analyzed to compare alterations in joint margin quadrants, paired articular surfaces within a synovial articulation, left-right laterality, and vertebral level distributions and to determine associations with age, wither height and sex. Seventy-two percent of articular processes had bony changes that were considered abnormal. Osteophyte formation was the most common bony change noted. Overall grades of severity included: normal (28%), mild (45%), moderate (22%), and severe (5%). The highest prevalence of mild changes was localized to the C3-C6 vertebral levels; moderate changes to C6-T2; and severe changes to C2-C3 and C6-T2. Most paired articular surfaces and left-right grades of severity were not significantly different. The grade of osseous pathology was positively associated with both age and wither height. A high prevalence and wide variety of abnormal bony changes of varying severity were found in articular processes across all vertebral levels. The clinical significance of the described lesions is unknown, but the findings are expected to enhance the reporting of articular process and periarticular changes noted on advanced diagnostic imaging of the equine cervical and cranial thoracic vertebral regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin K. Haussler
- Gail Holmes Equine Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Roy R. Pool
- Texas A&M University, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Hilary M. Clayton
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
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Szklarz M, Lipinska A, Slowikowska M, Niedzwiedz A, Marycz K, Janeczek M. Comparison of the clinical and radiographic appearance of the cervical vertebrae with histological and anatomical findings in an eight-month old warmblood stallion suffering from cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy (CVSM). BMC Vet Res 2019; 15:296. [PMID: 31416466 PMCID: PMC6694563 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-019-2047-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 08/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy (CVSM) remains one of the most important abnormalities of the cervical spine resulting in neurological deficits in horses. The aim of the following study was to compare the results of the clinical and neurological examination, the results of myelography and the post mortem anatomical and histological appearance of the spinal cord and cervical vertebrae in a horse with CVSM. CASE PRESENTATION The following study describes a clinical case of an eight-month-old stallion with ataxia. Plain cervical radiographs indicated narrowing of the spinal canal. Conservative therapy using NSAIDs did not result in any improvement in the gait of the horse. Due to economic constraints, surgical intervention was excluded. The owner chose to humanely euthanise the horse. Immediately after euthanasia, post mortem myelography was performed, and measurements of the myelographic dye column were taken. They revealed a 67% DMC reduction and a 64% DD reduction at the C3/C4 level. Afterwards, an anatomical dissection was performed. The cervical vertebrae and vertebral canal were macroscopically inspected and measured and indicated a 44% narrowing of the canal at the C3/C4 level. The spinal cord was removed and underwent histological evaluation after staining. Microscopic lesions were visible at the level of the compression and included axonal degeneration with partial or complete loss of myelin in the white matter of the lateral and dorsal funiculi as well as the formation of dysfunctional so-called "spongy structures". An increase in the number of microglial cells and collagen was also observed. The formation of glial scars was excluded. Immunohistochemical studies revealed a negative transmembrane glycoprotein CD68(-) - monocyte response and a negative tumor necrosis alpha TNFα (-) reaction. CONCLUSIONS CVSM may be difficult to diagnose, even for experienced veterinary surgeons. Currently, an ex vivo histopathologic examination of the spinal cord is thought to be the gold standard in the diagnosis of CVSM. Our histological examination revealed no CVSM-specific glial scar formation and a CD68(-) negative and TNF-α negative reaction, which have not been previously reported. Histological lesions in CVSM may vary depending show inter-individual variability and on the treatment, which further hinders ex-vivo diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Szklarz
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biostructure, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, ul Kozuchowska 1/3, 51-631 Wroclaw, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Anna Lipinska
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biostructure, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, ul Kozuchowska 1/3, 51-631 Wroclaw, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Malwina Slowikowska
- Department of Internal Diseases with Clinic for Horses, Dogs and Cats, Wroclaw Univeristy of Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Pl. Grunwaldzki 47, 50-366 Wroclaw, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Artur Niedzwiedz
- Department of Internal Diseases with Clinic for Horses, Dogs and Cats, Wroclaw Univeristy of Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Pl. Grunwaldzki 47, 50-366 Wroclaw, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Marycz
- Department of Experimental Biology, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Biology and Animal Science, ul Norwida 27B, 50-375 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Maciej Janeczek
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biostructure, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, ul Kozuchowska 1/3, 51-631 Wroclaw, Wrocław, Poland
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Hudson NPH, Mayhew IG. Radiographic and myelographic assessment of the equine cervical vertebral column and spinal cord. EQUINE VET EDUC 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2005.tb00333.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Radiographic anatomy of the articular process joints of the caudal cervical vertebrae in the horse on lateral and oblique projections. Equine Vet J 2010; 41:895-902. [DOI: 10.2746/042516409x434107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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van Biervliet J, Scrivani PV, Divers TJ, Erb HN, de Lahunta A, Nixon A. Evaluation of decision criteria for detection of spinal cord compression based on cervical myelography in horses: 38 cases (1981-2001). Equine Vet J 2010; 36:14-20. [PMID: 14756366 DOI: 10.2746/0425164044864642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY Different criteria have been described based on height reduction of the total myelographic contrast column and components of it as tests for compression of the spinal cord due to cervical stenotic myelopathy (CSM). Fifty percent height reduction of the dorsal myelographic column (DMC), <2 mm empiric height of the DMC and a 40% reduction of the ratio of stenosis calculated based on the height reduction of the entire dural diameter (DD) have been described as decision criteria for considering the test result positive. The reasons for selecting these decision criteria or their accuracies have rarely been reported. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the accuracy of diagnostic criteria based on reduced height of the total myelographic column and components of it for diagnosing extradural spinal cord compression using different decision criteria, and make recommendations for consistent myelographic interpretation in horses suspected of having CSM. METHODS Four measurements were obtained by 2 readers in a retrospective sample population of 38 horses in which both cervical myelography and histopathological examination of the cervical spinal cord were performed. The prevalence of CSM in the sample was 50%. At intervertebral sites, the minimum heights of the DD and DMC were measured. At intravertebral sites, the maximum heights of the entire DD and DMC were obtained. Percent height reductions of the DMC and DD were determined as the ratio of minimum intervertebral height to maximum intravertebral height within the next cranial vertebra. Histological examination was used as the gold standard for determining the actual site of spinal cord compression. Sensitivity and specificity for the diagnostic criteria were estimated at each site in neutral and flexed neck positions using several different decision criteria. CONCLUSIONS At C6-C7, in neutral or flexed neck position and using 20% reduction of DD, the test was highly sensitive and specific for CSM. At other sites, reduced height of the myelographic column generally was not accurate for diagnosing extradural spinal cord compression. Using 20% reduction of DD in neutral position at the mid-cervical sites, the test had only low sensitivity and high specificity. Flexion of the neck appeared to increase detection of spinal cord compression in the mid-cervical region, but also substantially increased the frequency of false-positive diagnoses. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE By using the reported sensitivity and specificity estimates, readers may decide on a decision criterion for diagnosis of extradural spinal cord compression due to CSM. However, in planning a surgical correction, it is difficult to define a decision criterion that combines acceptable sensitivity and specificity, especially at the mid-cervical sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- J van Biervliet
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
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Abstract
A 4-week old Quarter Horse filly was evaluated for abnormal gait and lateral deviation of the cervical spine. Physical examination findings prompted radiographs and computed tomography of the thoracic vertebral column which revealed hypoplasia of several thoracic vertebral bodies and resultant scoliosis of the thoracic vertebral column and deviation of the left and right hemithoraces and associated ribs. Collectively, radiography and computed tomography provided an accurate description of the vertebral malformations resulting in scoliosis in this foal.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Wong
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences and Veterinary Microbiology and Preventative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA.
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