Evaluation of chronic tears of the rotator cuff by ultrasound. A new index

Systematic review of quantitative imaging biomarkers for neck and shoulder musculoskeletal disorders

Background

This study systematically summarizes quantitative imaging biomarker research in non-traumatic neck and shoulder musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). There were two research questions: 1) Are there quantitative imaging biomarkers associated with the presence of neck and shoulder MSDs?, 2) Are there quantitative imaging biomarkers associated with the severity of neck and shoulder MSDs?

Methods

PubMed and SCOPUS were used for the literature search. One hundred and twenty-five studies met primary inclusion criteria. Data were extracted from 49 sufficient quality studies.

Results

Most of the 125 studies were cross-sectional and utilized convenience samples of patients as both cases and controls. Only half controlled for potential confounders via exclusion or in the analysis. Approximately one-third reported response rates. In sufficient quality articles, 82% demonstrated at least one statistically significant association between the MSD(s) and biomarker(s) studied. The literature synthesis suggested that neck muscle size may be decreased in neck pain, and trapezius myalgia and neck/shoulder pain may be associated with reduced vascularity in the trapezius and reduced trapezius oxygen saturation at rest and in response to upper extremity tasks. Reduced vascularity in the supraspinatus tendon may also be a feature in rotator cuff tears. Five of eight studies showed an association between a quantitative imaging marker and MSD severity.

Conclusions

Although research on quantitative imaging biomarkers is still in a nascent stage, some MSD biomarkers were identified. There are limitations in the articles examined, including possible selection bias and inattention to potentially confounding factors. Recommendations for future studies are provided.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12891-017-1694-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Clinical Features Associated with Frozen Shoulder Syndrome in Parkinson's Disease

Background. Frozen shoulder syndrome is a common musculoskeletal disease of idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) that causes long-term pain and physical disability. A better understanding of the associated factors can help identify PD patients who will require prevention to improve their quality of life. Methodology. This prospective study evaluated 60 shoulders of 30 PD patients. Correlation analysis was used to evaluate the relationships between clinical factors and shoulder sonography findings. Results. Frozen shoulder syndrome was found in 14 of 30 PD patients affecting 19 shoulders, including bilateral involvement in five and unilateral involvement in nine. There was a significant positive correlation between the parameters of sonography findings and frozen shoulder syndrome (i.e., thickness of bicipital effusion and tendon thickness of the subscapularis and supraspinatus) and mean ipsilateral Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) III and its subscores (tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesia scores). Conclusions. Higher ipsilateral UPDRS and subscores are associated with increased effusion around the biceps tendon, with increased tendon thickness of subscapularis and supraspinatus. Preventing frozen shoulder syndrome in the high-risk PD group is an important safety issue and highly relevant for their quality of life.

Supraspinatus tendon and subacromial space parameters measured on ultrasonographic imaging in subacromial impingement syndrome

PURPOSE

To characterize the supraspinatus tendon thickness, subacromial space, and the relationship between tendon thickness and subacromial space to further elucidate the mechanisms of subacromial impingement syndrome.

METHODS

In a single-blind cross-sectional study, subjects were recruited with subacromial impingement syndrome (n = 20) and asymptomatic controls (n = 20) matched for age, gender, and hand dominance. Ultrasound images were collected using a 4-12-MHz linear transducer in B-mode of the supraspinatus tendon in the transverse (short axis) and the anterior aspect of the subacromial space outlet. Using image callipers, measurements of tendon thickness were taken at 3 points along the tendon and averaged for a single thickness measure. The subacromial space outlet was measured via the acromiohumeral distance (AHD) defined by the inferior acromion and superior humeral head. The occupation ratio was calculated as the tendon thickness as a percentage of AHD.

RESULTS

The subacromial impingement syndrome group had a significantly thicker tendon (mean difference = 0.6 mm, p = 0.048) and a greater tendon occupation ratio (mean difference = 7.5 %, p = 0.014) compared to matched controls. There were no AHD group differences.

CONCLUSIONS

The supraspinatus tendon was thicker and occupied a greater percentage of AHD, supporting an intrinsic mechanism. An extrinsic mechanism of tendon compression is theoretically supported, but future imaging studies need to confirm direct compression with elevation. Treatment to reduce tendon thickness may reduce symptoms, and surgical intervention to increase subacromial space may be considered if tendon compression can be verified.

Ultrasound dimensions of the rotator cuff in young healthy adults

BACKGROUND

No studies have looked at the rotator cuff dimensions in the young healthy population using ultrasonography. Our aim is to define the ultrasound dimensions of the rotator cuff in the healthy young adult population and explore correlations with other patient characteristics.

METHODS

Thirty male and 30 female healthy volunteers (aged 18-40 years), with no shoulder problems, underwent ultrasound assessment of both shoulders by a musculoskeletal radiologist. The dimensions of the rotator cuff, deltoid, and biceps were measured in a standardized manner.

RESULTS

A total of 120 shoulders were scanned. The mean maximum width of the supraspinatus footprint was 14.9 mm in men and 13.5 mm in women (P < .001). The mean thickness of the supraspinatus tendon was 4.9 mm in women and 5.6 mm in men. The mean thickness of the subscapularis was 4.4 in men and 3.8 mm in women and for the infraspinatus was 4.9 mm in men and 4.4 mm in women. There was no correlation between height, weight, biceps, or deltoid thickness with any tendon measurements. Apart from supraspinatus tendon thickness, the difference between dominant and nondominant shoulders in the same sex was not significant for any other tendon dimensions.

CONCLUSION

This study has defined the dimensions of the rotator cuff in the young healthy adult, which has not been previously published. This is important for the documentation of normal ultrasound anatomy of the rotator cuff and also demonstrates that the asymptomatic contralateral shoulder can and should be used to estimate the expected dimensions.

Magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic resonance arthrography and ultrasonography for assessing rotator cuff tears in people with shoulder pain for whom surgery is being considered

BACKGROUND

Shoulder pain is a very common symptom. Disorders of the rotator cuff tendons due to wear or tear are among the most common causes of shoulder pain and disability. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), magnetic resonance arthrography (MRA) and ultrasound (US) are increasingly being used to assess the presence and size of rotator cuff tears to assist in planning surgical treatment. It is not known whether one imaging method is superior to any of the others.

OBJECTIVES

To compare the diagnostic test accuracy of MRI, MRA and US for detecting any rotator cuff tears (i.e. partial or full thickness) in people with suspected rotator cuff tears for whom surgery is being considered.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Register of Diagnostic Test Accuracy Studies, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and LILACS from inception to February 2011. We also searched trial registers, conference proceedings and reference lists of articles to identify additional studies. No language or publication restrictions were applied.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included all prospective diagnostic accuracy studies that assessed MRI, MRA or US against arthroscopy or open surgery as the reference standard, in people suspected of having a partial or full thickness rotator cuff tear. We excluded studies that selected a healthy control group, or participants who had been previously diagnosed with other specific causes of shoulder pain such as osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis. Studies with an excessively long period (a year or longer) between the index and reference tests were also excluded.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently extracted data on study characteristics and results of included studies, and performed quality assessment according to QUADAS criteria. Our unit of analysis was the shoulder. For each test, estimates of sensitivity and specificity from each study were plotted in ROC space and forest plots were constructed for visual examination of variation in test accuracy. Meta-analyses were performed using the bivariate model to produce summary estimates of sensitivity and specificity. We were unable to formally investigate potential sources of heterogeneity because of the small number of studies.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 20 studies of people with suspected rotator cuff tears (1147 shoulders), of which six evaluated MRI and US (252 shoulders), or MRA and US (127 shoulders) in the same people. Many studies had design flaws, with the potential for bias, thus limiting the reliability of their findings. Overall, the methodological quality of the studies was judged to be low or unclear. For each test, we observed considerable heterogeneity in study results, especially between studies that evaluated US for the detection of full thickness tears and studies that evaluated MRA for the detection of partial thickness tears. The criteria for a positive diagnostic test (index tests and reference standard) varied between studies.Meta-analyses were not possible for studies that assessed MRA for detection of any rotator cuff tears or partial thickness tears. We found no statistically significant differences in sensitivity or specificity between MRI and US for detecting any rotator cuff tears (P = 0.13), or for detecting partial thickness tears (P = 1.0). Similarly, for the comparison between MRI, MRA and US for detecting full thickness tears, there was no statistically significant difference in diagnostic performance (P = 0.7). For any rotator cuff tears, the summary sensitivity and specificity were 98% (95% CI 92% to 99%) and 79% (95% CI 68% to 87%) respectively for MRI (6 studies, 347 shoulders), and 91% (95% CI 83% to 95%) and 85% (95% CI 74% to 92%) respectively for US (13 studies, 854 shoulders). For full thickness tears, the summary sensitivity and specificity were 94% (95% CI 85% to 98%) and 93% (95% CI 83% to 97%) respectively for MRI (7 studies, 368 shoulders); 94% (95% CI 80% to 98%) and 92% (95% CI 83% to 97%) respectively for MRA (3 studies, 183 shoulders); and 92% (95% CI 82% to 96%) and 93% (95% CI 81% to 97%) respectively for US (10 studies, 729 shoulders).Because few studies were direct head-to-head comparisons, we could not perform meta-analyses restricted to these studies. The test comparisons for each of the three classifications of the target condition were therefore based on indirect comparisons which may be prone to bias due to confounding.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

MRI, MRA and US have good diagnostic accuracy and any of these tests could equally be used for detection of full thickness tears in people with shoulder pain for whom surgery is being considered. The diagnostic performance of MRI and US may be similar for detection of any rotator cuff tears. However, both MRI and US may have poor sensitivity for detecting partial thickness tears, and the sensitivity of US may be much lower than that of MRI. The strength of evidence for all test comparisons is limited because most studies were small, heterogeneous and methodologically flawed, and there were few comparative studies. Well designed studies that directly compare MRI, MRA and US for detection of rotator cuff tears are needed.

Do the rotator cuff tendons of young athletic subjects hypertrophy in response to increased loading demands?

BACKGROUND

The rotator cuff is composed of muscle and tendon units. Although muscle has been shown to adapt to mechanical loads, the response of human tendon is not well defined. We hypothesized that increased loading demands on the rotator cuff of young trainees would cause an adaptive muscle response but not an adaptive hypertrophic tendon response.

METHODS

The hypertrophic response of the rotator cuff tendon, shoulder strength, aerobic fitness, and the lean body weight of 70 young male recruits were studied before and after a 1-year course of elite infantry training. Shoulder strength was assessed by the maximum number of pull-ups done and the rotator cuff thickness by ultrasound measurement of the supraspinatus thickness. Aerobic physical fitness was assessed by maximum oxygen consumption (Vo(2) max). Lean body weight was measured by skin-fold thickness.

RESULTS

The mean number of pull-ups done increased from 17.5 to 21.7 (P = .01), but the supraspinatus thickness at the beginning of training (6.1 mm) was unchanged at the end of the training. Vo(2) max increased from 57 to 64 mL/kg/min (P = .0001). Lean body weight increased from 58.3 to 64.7 kg (P = .0001).

CONCLUSIONS

As a result of increased loading, the strength of the rotator cuff muscles of young trainees increased, but by the parameter of hypertrophy, no evidence was found of a parallel adaptive response of the rotator cuff tendon.

Shoulder ultrasound

Ultrasound is used increasingly in the investigation of the rotator cuff. It is as accurate as magnetic resonance imaging in the detection of rotator cuff tears and the assessment of tear size and can demonstrate atrophy and fatty infiltration in the rotator cuff muscles. This article reviews the anatomy and technique of shoulder ultrasound, the ultrasound findings in rotator cuff disease, the accuracy of ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging in the assessment of rotator cuff tears and the role of interventional ultrasound of the shoulder.

Reliability of quantitative ultrasound measures of the biceps and supraspinatus tendons

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

Ultrasound is a proven method for examining soft tissue structures, including tendons, and recently quantitative ultrasound has become more prevalent in research settings. However, limited reliability data have been published for these new quantitative ultrasound measures. The main objective of this study was to quantify the reliability and measurement error of multiple quantitative ultrasound imaging protocols for the biceps and supraspinatus tendons.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two examiners captured ultrasound images of the non-dominant long head of the biceps tendon and supraspinatus tendon from 15 able-bodied participants and five manual wheelchair users. Each examiner captured two images per subject under two different preparations, which included subject positioning and reference marker placement. Image processing (reading) was performed twice to compute nine quantitative ultrasound measures of grayscale tendon appearance using first-order statistics and texture analysis. Generalizability theory was applied to compute interrater and intrarater reliability using the coefficient of dependability (Phi) for multiple study design protocols.

RESULTS

Interrater reliability was generally low (0.26 < Phi < 0.82), and it is recommended that a single evaluator capture all images for quantitative ultrasound protocols. Most of the quantitative ultrasound measures (n = 14 of 18) exhibited at least moderate (Phi > 0.50) intrarater reliability for a single image captured under one preparation and read once.

CONCLUSION

By following a protocol designed to minimize measurement error, one can increase the reliability of quantitative ultrasound measures. An appropriately designed protocol will allow quantitative ultrasound to be used as an outcome measure to identify structural changes within tendons.

Ultrasound of the rotator cuff with MRI and anatomic correlation

Magnetic resonance imaging and high-resolution ultrasound (US) are frequently used for the detection of rotator cuff tears. The diagnostic yield of US is influenced by several factors as technique, knowledge of the imaging characteristics of anatomic and pathologic findings and of pitfalls. The purpose of this article is to illustrates that the standardized high-resolution US examination of the shoulder covers the entire rotator cuff and correlates with MR imaging and anatomic sections.

From the RSNA refresher courses: US of the rotator cuff: pitfalls, limitations, and artifacts

High-resolution ultrasonography (US) has gained increasing popularity as a diagnostic tool for assessment of the soft tissues in shoulder impingement syndrome. US is a powerful and accurate method for diagnosis of rotator cuff tears and other rotator cuff abnormalities, provided the examiner has a detailed knowledge of shoulder anatomy, uses a standardized examination technique, and has a thorough understanding of the potential pitfalls, limitations, and artifacts. False-positive sonographic findings of rotator cuff tears can be caused by the technique (anisotropy, transducer positioning, acoustic shadowing by the deltoid septum), by the anatomy (rotator cuff interval, supraspinatus-infraspinatus interface, musculotendinous junction, fibrocartilaginous insertion), or by disease (criteria for diagnosis of rotator cuff tears, tendon inhomogeneity, acoustic shadowing by scar tissue or calcification, rotator cuff thinning). False-negative sonographic findings of rotator cuff tears can be caused by the technique (transducer frequency, suboptimal focusing, imaging protocol, transducer handling), by the anatomy (nondiastasis of the ruptured tendon fibers, posttraumatic obscuration of landmarks), by disease (tendinosis, calcifications, synovial proliferation, granulation or scar tissue, bursal thickening, massive rotator cuff tears), or by patient factors (obesity, muscularity, limited shoulder motion).

Ultrasound of the shoulder and elbow

Ultrasound examination of the shoulder and elbow requires careful technique, appreciation of normal anatomy, and appropriate high-end equipment. Ultrasound provides detailed diagnostic information. Its accuracy is comparable to that of MRI in the assessment of the rotator cuff. Ultrasound is cheaper than MRI and is preferred by patients.

Standard reference values for musculoskeletal ultrasonography

OBJECTIVES

To determine standard reference values for musculoskeletal ultrasonography in healthy adults.

METHODS

Ultrasonography was performed on 204 shoulders, elbows, hands, hips, knees, and feet of 102 healthy volunteers (mean age 38.4 years; range 20-60; 54 women) with a linear probe (10-5 MHz; Esaote Technos MP). Diameters of tendons, bursae, cartilage, erosions, hypoechoic rims around tendons and at joints were measured with regard to established standard scans. Mean, minimum, and maximum values, as well as two standard deviations (2 SD) were determined. Mean values +/-2 SD were defined as standard reference values.

RESULTS

Hypoechoic rims were normally present in joints and tendon sheaths owing to physiological synovial fluid and/or cartilage. Similarly, fluid was found in the subdeltoid bursa in 173/204 (85%), at the long biceps tendon in 56 (27%), in the suprapatellar recess in 158 (77%), in the popliteal bursae in 32 (16%), and in the retrocalcaneal bursa in 49 (24%). Erosions of >1 mm were seen at the humeral head in 47 (23%). Values for important intervals were determined. The correlation between two investigators was 0.96 (0.78-0.99). The reliability of follow up investigations was 0.83 (0.52-0.99).

CONCLUSIONS

Fluid in bursae as well as hypoechoic rims within joints and around tendons are common findings in healthy people. This study defines standard reference values for musculoskeletal ultrasonography to prevent misinterpretation of normal fluid as an anatomical abnormality.

Three-dimensional ultrasonography in the diagnosis of rotator cuff lesions

Two-dimensional (2-D) ultrasound (US) of rotator cuff lesions is a well-established tool. The aim of this study was to elucidate if the use of 3-D sonography can increase the diagnostic yield of US. A total of 40 patients were preoperatively evaluated using 2-D and 3-D sonography, and these results were compared to intraoperative findings. Ultrasound was performed on a 530D US machine (Kretztechnik, Zipf, Austria) with a 10-MHz transducer. We found an increased validity of 3-D imaging, mainly based on the higher reliability in the diagnosis of partial-thickness cuff lesions. Sensitivity and specificity were found to be 91% and 82% for 3-D sonography and 74% and 82% for 2-D sonography, respectively. With 3-D US partial-tear rotator cuff lesions can be predicted more accurately.