Ultrasound in the diagnosis of fractures in children

Diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound versus X-ray for distal forearm fractures in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Utilizing ultrasound for the detection of distal forearm fractures in children presents a potential safe and radiation-free alternative compared to X-ray.

METHODS

A systematic review was undertaken to compare the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound in detecting distal forearm fractures in children with X-ray imaging within the period spanning January 2010 to August 2023. The electronic databases MEDLINE and Cochrane CENTRAL were utilized for data retrieval. The QUADAS-2 tool was employed to assess the quality of the included studies. Subsequent statistical analysis was performed to calculate pooled sensitivity and specificity, positive and negative likelihood ratios, as well as the diagnostic odds ratio.

RESULTS

Our meta-analysis included seventeen studies, encompassing a total of 2003 patients, 2546 ultrasound scans, and 1203 fracture cases as identified by the reference test (X-ray). The pooled sensitivity and specificity were 0.96 (95% CI: 0.93-0.98) and 0.96 (95% CI: 0.89-0.98), respectively. The positive likelihood ratio was 13.40 (95% CI: 7.97-21.50), the negative likelihood ratio was 0.06 (95% CI: 0.04-0.1), and the pooled diagnostic odds ratio was 209 (95% CI: 92.20-412.00). Our statistical analysis revealed low heterogeneity within our studied cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study indicates that ultrasound exhibits exceptionally high accuracy in the detection of distal forearm fractures in children and adolescents. It can be employed safely to either confirm or rule out a fracture, thus circumventing the need for potentially harmful radiation exposure in this vulnerable population. Future research endeavors should focus on establishing a universally accepted protocol for training and scanning methods to standardize practices and eliminate disparities in diagnostic procedures.

Flexible ultrasound transceiver array for non-invasive surface-conformable imaging enabled by geometric phase correction

Ultrasound imaging provides the means for non-invasive real-time diagnostics of the internal structure of soft tissue in living organisms. However, the majority of commercially available ultrasonic transducers have rigid interfaces which cannot conform to highly-curved surfaces. These geometric limitations can introduce a signal-quenching air gap for certain topographies, rendering accurate imaging difficult or impractical. Here, we demonstrate a 256-element flexible two-dimensional (2D) ultrasound piezoelectric transducer array with geometric phase correction. We show surface-conformable real-time B-mode imaging, down to an extreme radius of curvature of 1.5 cm, while maintaining desirable performance metrics such as high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and minimal elemental cross-talk at all stages of bending. We benchmark the array capabilities by resolving reflectors buried at known locations in a medical-grade tissue phantom, and demonstrate how phase correction can improve image reconstruction on curved surfaces. With the current array design, we achieve an axial resolution of ≈ 2 mm at clinically-relevant depths in tissue, while operating the array at 1.4 MHz with a bandwidth of ≈ 41%. We use our prototype to image the surface of the human humerus at different positions along the arm, demonstrating proof-of-concept applicability for real-time diagnostics using phase-corrected flexible ultrasound probes.

Nurse practitioner administered point-of-care ultrasound compared with X-ray for children with clinically non-angulated distal forearm fractures in the ED: a diagnostic study

BACKGROUND

Paediatric distal forearm fractures are a common ED presentation. They can be diagnosed with point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) as an alternative to X-rays. Given that ED nurse practitioners (NPs) are relied on for the diagnosis of paediatric fractures, it is important to describe the diagnostic accuracy of NP-conducted POCUS versus X-ray.

METHODS

This prospective diagnostic study was conducted in a tertiary paediatric hospital in Queensland, Australia, between February 2018 and April 2019. Participants were children aged 4-16 years with a clinically non-angulated, suspected distal forearm fracture. Diagnosis from 6-view NP-administered POCUS of the distal radius and ulna was compared against the reference standard of 2-view X-ray. Each patient received both imaging modalities. Overall forearm diagnosis was classified as 'no', 'buckle' or 'other' fracture for both modalities. The primary outcome was diagnostic accuracy for 'any' fracture ('buckle' and 'other' fractures combined). Secondary outcomes included diagnostic accuracy for 'other' fractures versus 'buckle' and 'no' fractures combined, and pain, imaging duration and preference for modality.

RESULTS

Of 204 recruited patients, 129 had X-ray-diagnosed forearm fractures. The sensitivity and specificity for NP-administered POCUS were 94.6% (95% CI 89.2% to 97.3%) and 85.3% (95% CI 75.6% to 91.6%), respectively. 'Other' fractures (mostly cortical breach fractures), when compared with 'buckle'/ 'no' fractures, had sensitivity 81.0% (95% CI 69.1% to 89.1%) and specificity 95.9% (95% CI 91.3% to 98.1%). Pain and imaging duration were clinically similar between modalities. There was a preference for POCUS by patients, parents and NPs.

CONCLUSIONS

NP-administered POCUS had clinically acceptable diagnostic accuracy for paediatric patients presenting with non-angulated distal forearm injuries. This included good sensitivity for diagnosis of 'any' fracture and good specificity for diagnosis of cortical breach fractures alone. Given the preference for POCUS, and the lack of difference in pain and duration between modalities, future research should consider functional outcomes comparing POCUS with X-ray in this population in a randomised controlled trial.

Point-of-care ultrasound compared with conventional radiographic evaluation in children with suspected distal forearm fractures in the Netherlands: a diagnostic accuracy study

BACKGROUND

Distal forearm fractures are common in children. The reference standard to diagnose these fractures is by conventional radiography, which exposes these patients to harmful radiation. Ultrasound (US) seems to be a good alternative. However, emergency physicians (EPs) in the Netherlands have limited experience in using US for diagnosing fractures in children.

OBJECTIVE

The primary objective was to determine the accuracy of US, performed by a Dutch EP, compared with conventional radiography, in diagnosing distal forearm fractures in children. As a secondary objective, differences in pain scores during the performance of both US and plain radiography were determined.

METHODS

Children, aged between 0 and 14 years old, suspected of having a distal forearm fracture were enrolled at the Emergency Department. US and radiographic findings were compared. Statistics for accuracy were calculated. Pain scores were recorded during US and radiography and compared as well. All participating operators received an hour-long pretrial training.

RESULTS

100 patients were enrolled. The mean age was 9.5 years (SD, 3.6), and 50% were women. Overall diagnostic accuracy was 92% (95% CI 85%-96%). The sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, positive and negative likelihood ratios for US were 95% (95% CI 87% to 99%), 86% (95% CI 71% to 95%), 92% (95% CI 83% to 97%), 91% (95% CI 76% to 98%), 6.86 (95% CI 3.04 to 15.51) and 0.05 (95% CI 0.02 to 0.17), respectively. The pain scores during US and radiographic imaging were 3.3 and 4.6, respectively (p<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we showed that US is an accurate method for diagnosing distal forearm fractures in children. The main advantages are that it is radiation-free and rapidly practicable, and that patients experience it as less painful than radiography. Moreover, this study has proven that with minimal experience in US, good diagnostic accuracy can be achieved after brief training.

What is the role of ultrasound in fracture management?: Diagnosis and therapeutic potential for fractures, delayed unions, and fracture-related infection

Objectives

The aim of this study was to review the current evidence and future application for the role of diagnostic and therapeutic ultrasound in fracture management.

Methods

A review of relevant literature was undertaken, including articles indexed in PubMed with keywords "ultrasound" or "sonography" combined with "diagnosis", "fracture healing", "impaired fracture healing", "nonunion", "microbiology", and "fracture-related infection".

Results

The use of ultrasound in musculoskeletal medicine has expanded rapidly over the last two decades, but the diagnostic use in fracture management is not routinely practised. Early studies have shown the potential of ultrasound as a valid alternative to radiographs to diagnose common paediatric fractures, to detect occult injuries in adults, and for rapid detection of long bone fractures in the resuscitation setting. Ultrasound has also been shown to be advantageous in the early identification of impaired fracture healing; with the advent of 3D image processing, there is potential for wider adoption. Detection of implant-related infection can be improved by ultrasound mediated sonication of microbiology samples. The use of therapeutic ultrasound to promote union in the management of acute fractures is currently a controversial topic. However, there is strong in vitro evidence that ultrasound can stimulate a biological effect with potential clinical benefit in established nonunions, which supports the need for further investigation.

Conclusion

Modern ultrasound image processing has the potential to replace traditional imaging modalities in several areas of trauma practice, particularly in the early prediction of impaired fracture healing. Further understanding of the therapeutic application of ultrasound is required to understand and identify the use in promoting fracture healing.Cite this article: J. A. Nicholson, S. T. J. Tsang, T. J. MacGillivray, F. Perks, A. H. R. W. Simpson. What is the role of ultrasound in fracture management? Diagnosis and therapeutic potential for fractures, delayed unions, and fracture-related infection. Bone Joint Res 2019;8:304-312. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.87.BJR-2018-0215.R2.

Ultrasound Features of the Normal and Pathologic Periosteum

Thickening and elevation of the periosteum from the underlying bone cortex, defined as a periosteal reaction, can be associated with several bone disorders. Although ultrasound (US) has limited possibilities in assessing bones, it can depict a periosteal reaction earlier than plain radiography, thus indicating underlying bone disorders. This pictorial essay aims to illustrate the normal and pathologic US appearances of the periosteum in both children and adults. Several disorders are discussed, such as pediatric bone trauma, infections and tumors, as well as trauma, overuse, including medial tibial stress syndrome, and finally certain seronegative spondyloarthropathies in adults. Whenever US depicts a periosteal reaction, a correlation with clinical and laboratory data is mandatory to differentiate different bone disorders. Computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging must be performed when an infection or a tumor is suspected based on both US and the clinical presentation.

Accuracy of Point-of-Care Ultrasonography for Pediatric Ankle Sprain Injuries

OBJECTIVES

In children with radiograph fracture-negative lateral ankle injuries, the main objective of this pilot study was to explore the accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) performed by a pediatric emergency physician in diagnosing anterior talofibular ligament injuries, radiographically occult distal fibular fractures, and effusions compared with reference standard magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

METHODS

This was a prospective cohort pilot study. Children aged 5 to 17 years with an isolated, acute lateral ankle injury and fracture-negative ankle radiographs were eligible for enrolment. Within 1 week of the injury, enrolled children returned for MRI and POCUS of both ankles.

RESULTS

Seven children were enrolled, with a mean age 12.1 (SD, 3.0) years. Overall, POCUS agreed with MRI with respect to anterior talofibular ligament injury in 4 (57%) of 7 cases. Of the 2 cases with MRI-confirmed ligament damage, POCUS accurately identified and graded the extent of ligament damage in 1 case. Point-of-care ultrasound falsely identified ligament injuries in 2 cases. Both imaging modalities confirmed the absence of cortical fractures in all 7 cases. For all findings, POCUS sensitivity and specificity were 57% and 86%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

In this pilot study, we established that POCUS diagnosed the specific pathology of radiograph-negative lateral ankle injuries with poor sensitivity but good specificity. Thus, POCUS could act as a tool to exclude significant ligamentous and radiographically occult bony injury in these cases. A larger study is needed to validate the utility of POCUS for this common injury.

The Investigation of Suspected Fracture-a Comparison of Ultrasound With Conventional Imaging

BACKGROUND

Ultrasound imaging can be used to diagnose fractures in patients with acute trauma. Its main advantages over conventional imaging are the absence of radiation exposure and its greater availability.

METHODS

A systematic search in electronic databases (Medline, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL) was supplemented by a manual search on the Internet and in the reference lists of pertinent publications. The QUADAS-2 instrument was used to assess the quality of the individual studies retrieved. In the metaanalysis, the sensitivity and specificity of the individual studies were pooled.

RESULTS

The available information on the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound in the detection of fractures compared with that of conventional imaging (x-ray, CT, MRI) in patients with acute non-life-threatening trauma is summarized. The database search yielded 2153 hits, among which there were 48 studies that were suitable for inclusion in this review. The pooled sensitivity and specificity were 0.91 (95% confidence interval [0.90; 0.92]) and 0.94 [0.93; 0.95], although the analyzed studies were markedly heterogeneous (I²: sensitivity 74%, specificity 81%). The sensitivity of ultrasound was higher for the detection of fractures of the humerus, the forearm, the ankle, and the long bones in general, as well as fractures in children, and lower for fractures of the short bones of the hands and feet, and in adults.

CONCLUSION

Strong evidence supports the use of ultrasound imaging for certain indications in the detection of fractures.

Early scaphoid fractures are better diagnosed with ultrasonography than X-rays: A prospective study over 114 patients

PURPOSE

Wrist has a complex anatomy and undergoes complex injuries. Scaphoid fracture is one of such injuries. It is the most common fracture in carpal bone. Most of the scaphoid fractures are missed on initial X-rays. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is considered as a gold standard for diagnosing scaphoid fractures. Ultrasonography (USG) is emerging as a good alternative to make an early diagnosis of scaphoid fractures. Our aim is to throw light upon the role of USG in detection of scaphoid fractures.

METHODS

The study was centered upon 114 patients in the age range 10-65 years, with traumatic wrist injury and were clinically suspected to have scaphoid fractures. Patient with non-traumatic history, bilateral wrist injury and late presentation were excluded. X-rays, USG using high frequency probe and MRI were done for all patients. MRI was considered to be the gold standard test. Patients were followed up at 6 weeks.

RESULTS

Of the 114 patients, X-ray could diagnose scaphoid fractures in 48 patients, 30 of which were confirmed by MRI. USG results were positive in 74 patients, of which MRI was positive in 67 patients. The accuracy of scaphoid fracture detection with USG was 98.04% in comparison to X-ray (20.58%), which was statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

USG provides a more accurate and reliable method of making an early diagnosis of scaphoid fracture than X-rays. It is non-invasive, non-expensive and allows better visualisation of cortical disruption.

Point of care ultrasonography in the pediatric emergency department

IMPORTANCE

Point-of-care ultrasonography (POCUS) allows to obtain real-time images to correlate with the patient's presenting signs and symptoms. It can be used by various specialties and may be broadly divided into diagnostic and procedural applications.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed at reviewing current knowledge on the use of POCUS in Pediatric Emergency Departments (PEDs).

FINDINGS

US diagnostic capacity in paediatric patients with suspected pneumonia has been studied and debated whereas literature regarding the usefulness of point-of-care echocardiography in the pediatric setting is still limited. Similarly, Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) has become a standard procedure in adult emergency medicine but it is still not well codified in the pediatric practice. Concerning procedural applications of POCUS we identified 4 main groups: peripheral vascular access, bladder catheterizations, identification and drainage of abnormal fluid collections and foreign body identification.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Bedside emergency ultrasound is routinely used by adult emergency physicians and in the last 10 years its application is recognized and applied in PED. Pediatric emergency physicians are encouraged to familiarize with POCUS as it is a safe technology and can be extremely helpful in performing diagnosis, managing critical situations and guiding procedures, which results in globally improving pediatric patients care.

Technical and clinical feasibility of contrast-enhanced ultrasound evaluation of long bone non-infected nonunion healing

PURPOSE

To assess the technical feasibility of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) in the monitoring of non-infected long bone nonunion healing.

METHODS

Twenty-five patients (16 males; mean age: 40.4 ± 11.7) with long bone nonunion were treated using surgery and mesenchymal stem cells and platelet-rich plasma. They performed CEUS up to 15 days before, 7 days, 4 and 8 weeks after treatment. To categorize the angiogenesis around the fracture site, the microvascular blood flow from CEUS was classified into four categories, depending on the portion of the investigated area that was involved in the neovascularization process: grade 0 = 0%; grade 1 = 0-30%; grade 2 = 30-70%; grade 3 = 70-100%. Nonparametric Friedman and Wilcoxon statistics were used.

RESULTS

Before treatment, neovascularization was graded as 0 in 15/25 patients, as 1 in 10/25. Vascularity significantly increased over time (P < 0.001), namely: 1 (25th-75th percentile = 1-2) at 7 days; 2 (1-2) at 4 weeks; 3 (0-2) at 8 weeks. All patients but one showed early progressive increase in neovascularization well identified with CEUS at the fracture site.

CONCLUSION

CEUS is a feasible method to monitor healing in patients with long bone nonunion.

The role of ultrasound as a problem-solving tool in the assessment of paediatric musculoskeletal injuries

Musculoskeletal trauma in the paediatric population covers a wide range of injuries; although many overlap with their adult counterparts, others are exclusive to the immature skeletal system. Ultrasound is a versatile tool particularly suited to both the imaging of children and the dynamic assessment of musculoskeletal injuries. This pictorial review aims to discuss a range of injuries, focusing on those commonly encountered in children. We shall describe the muscle-tendon-bone complex and changes that occur with increasing skeletal maturity and how this affects the type of injury encountered.

Ultrasonography in Emergency Department; a Diagnostic Tool for Better Examination and Decision-Making

Context:

The aim of this study is to evaluate the applications of ultrasonography (US) as a diagnostic tool in emergency settings.

Evidence acquisition:

In the present review article, search engines and scientific databases of Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, Medline, Scopus, and Cochrane were searched for the applications of US in emergencies. Finally, related articles which were published between 2000 and 2017, were selected and by reviewing them an attempt was made to evaluate various applications of US for examining and facilitating decision-making in emergency department (ED).

Results:

As a diagnostic tool, US can be of diagnostic help in emergency settings for the specialists and the treatment team regarding trauma, measuring intracranial pressure (ICP), hemothorax pneumothorax, abscess and its drainage, deep vein thrombosis (DVT), dyspnea, acute abdomen, appendicitis and biliary problems, renal colic and renal stones, shock, foreign object, bone fracture, peripheral nerve block, establishing central and peripheral venous access, lumbar puncture (LP), and confirmation of nasogastric tube (NGT) and endotracheal tube (ETT) placement.

Conclusion:

The results of this review study showed that US can be of help to EMPs as a diagnostic tool in a wide range of diseases and clinical conditions, which in turn can result in a decrease in the time needed for diagnosis and treatment, and therefore improve both the quality and quantity of the service provided in ED.

Ultrasonography-guided reduction of pediatric radial neck fractures

Background

Treatment of displaced and angulated radial neck fractures in children is controversial and challenging. Numerous studies have been conducted regarding treatment algorithms and surgical techniques that use fluoroscopy. However, ultrasonography (US)-guided reduction of pediatric radial neck fractures has not been reported yet. We aimed to determine the safety and efficacy of US-guided reduction and fixation of radial neck fractures in children.

Methods

Among 28 cases of radial neck fracture from 2014 to 2016, 12 were classified as type III or IV according to the Judet classification. All 12 patients underwent US-guided reduction and percutaneous fixation with Kirschner wire and follow-up for more than 6 months. US was used primarily to monitor the angulation and reduction of the radial neck. Fluoroscopy was applied to confirm the fixation with Kirschner wire. Dose area product (DAP; mGy/cm²) was measured to assess per-procedure radiation dose. Radiological and clinical results were evaluated at 6 months after the surgery by using the Metaizeau criteria.

Results

Of the patients, 4 were boys and 8 were girls, with a mean age of 7.7 years (range, 5–11 years). Judet type III fractures accounted for 83% of all injuries. The mean preoperative radial angulation was 62.5° (range: 46°–76°). The mean postoperative radial angulation was 5.6° (range: 2°–9°). The mean fluoroscopy time was 31 s (range: 10–73 s), and the mean DAP was 10.7 mGy/cm² (range: 7.2–18.7 mGy/cm²). The mean follow-up period was 18.3 months (range, 8–24 months). According to the Metaizeau criteria, 10 cases were excellent and 2 cases were good at the last follow-up.

Conclusions

US-guided reduction and percutaneous fixation is safe and reliable option to treat displaced radial neck fractures in children.

Sternal Fracture in Children: Diagnosis by Ultrasonography

Because of its subcutaneous location, the sternum can be examined sonographically using a linear scanner. We report about two children who experienced blunt chest trauma. Anterior-posterior chest X-rays were normal. Ultrasonic imaging confirmed a fracture of the sternum with dorsal displacement of the distal fragment (by 0.97 cm) in the first child and a transverse fracture of the body of the sternum without displacement in the second child. In both children, pericardial effusion was excluded by sonography. The displaced fracture of the sternum was confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which ruled out concomitant injuries of the soft tissues adjacent to the sternum. Both sternum fractures were managed nonoperatively. These cases serve to emphasize the importance of sonography that represents an ionizing radiation free, noninvasive, efficient, and safe imaging modality to diagnose fractures of the sternum in children while also enabling the assessment of the pericardium.

Diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound in upper and lower extremity long bone fractures of emergency department trauma patients

BACKGROUND

Long bone fractures are common injuries caused by trauma. Some studies have demonstrated that ultrasound has a high sensitivity and specificity in the diagnosis of upper and lower extremity long bone fractures.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine the accuracy of ultrasound compared with plain radiography in diagnosis of upper and lower extremity long bone fractures in traumatic patients.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study assessed 100 patients admitted to the emergency department of Imam Khomeini Hospital, Ahvaz, Iran with trauma to the upper and lower extremities, from September 2014 through October 2015. In all patients, first ultrasound and then standard plain radiography for the upper and lower limb was performed. Data were analyzed by SPSS version 21 to determine the specificity and sensitivity.

RESULTS

The mean age of patients with upper and lower limb trauma were 31.43±12.32 years and 29.63±5.89 years, respectively. Radius fracture was the most frequent compared to other fractures (27%). Sensitivity, specificity, positive predicted value, and negative predicted value of ultrasound compared with plain radiography in the diagnosis of upper extremity long bones were 95.3%, 87.7%, 87.2% and 96.2%, respectively, and the highest accuracy was observed in left arm fractures (100%). Tibia and fibula fractures were the most frequent types compared to other fractures (89.2%). Sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of ultrasound compared with plain radiography in the diagnosis of upper extremity long bone fractures were 98.6%, 83%, 65.4% and 87.1%, respectively, and the highest accuracy was observed in men, lower ages and femoral fractures.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study showed that ultrasound compared with plain radiography has a high accuracy in the diagnosis of upper and lower extremity long bone fractures.

The comparison of point-of-care ultrasonography and radiography in the diagnosis of tibia and fibula fractures

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to compare the efficacy of Point-of-care ultrasonography (POCUS) with radiography in the diagnosis of tibia fracture (TF) and fibula fracture (FF), and determation of fracture characteristics.

METHODS

Patients aged 5-55 years who were admitted to ED due to low-energy, simple extremity trauma, who had a suspected TF and FF on physical examination were included in this prospective study. One physician performed POCUS examination. Other physician evaluated the radiography images. The obtained results were compared.

RESULTS

A total of 62 patients were included in the study. TF was detected in 21 patients by radiography and in 24 patients by POCUS. FF was detected in 24 patients by radiography and in 25 patients by POCUS. Ten of the patients had both TF and FF. Compared with radiography, sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of POCUS in the detection of TF were 100%, 93%, 88% and 100% (95% CI, 91-100%), respectively. Compared with direct X-ray imaging, sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of POCUS in the detection of FF were 100%, 97%, 96% and 100% (95% CI, 96-100%), respectively. We determined that POCUS is also successful in detection of fracture features such as angulation, step-off, extension into the joint space that can determine the treatment decision.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that POCUS was found to be as successful as direct X-ray imaging in the diagnosis of TF and FF.

Minimal training sufficient to diagnose pediatric wrist fractures with ultrasound

BACKGROUND

In children, non-fractured wrists generally need no treatment and those that are fractured may only require a 3-week cast without any clinical follow-up. The ability to perform a point-of-care triage decision if radiographs are needed could improve patient flow and decrease unnecessary radiographs. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of ultrasound (US) as a point-of-care triage tool for pediatric wrist injuries with limited training.

METHODS

Physicians with no previous US experience attended a 1.5 h course in the use of US to diagnose distal radius fractures at the Emergency Department (ED). The physicians firstly used US to diagnose a potential fracture and, if the patient had a fracture, grouped the patient according to how they wanted him/her to be treated based on US. The physician then interpreted the subsequent radiographs and decided on a treatment based on this information. Consultant traumatologists and a senior radiologist established a gold standard for correct treatment and radiological diagnosis, respectively.

RESULTS

One hundred and sixteen injuries in 115 patients were included. The ED physician identified 75 fractures on radiographs. With the exception of a minimal buckle fracture, all were identified on US. US had a tendency to interpret complete fractures on radiographs as incomplete (n = 7) leading to incorrect treatment decisions.

CONCLUSIONS

In the hands of an US novice, US examination is comparable with radiographs as a point-of-care tool to distinguish a fractured wrist from a non-fractured one. US is not, however, as good as radiographs for placing fractured wrists into the correct treatment group.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III. Diagnostic study of non-consecutive patients.

Point-of-care Ultrasound for Nonangulated Distal Forearm Fractures in Children: Test Performance Characteristics and Patient-centered Outcomes

OBJECTIVES

Distal forearm fractures are the most common fracture type in children. Point-of-care-ultrasound (POCUS) is increasingly being used, and preliminary studies suggest that it offers an accurate approach to diagnosis. However, outcomes such as pain, satisfaction, and procedure duration have not been explored but may be salient to the widespread acceptance of this technology by caregivers and children. Our objectives were to examine the test performance characteristics of POCUS for nonangulated distal forearm injuries in children and compare POCUS to x-ray with respect to pain, caregiver satisfaction, and procedure duration.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study involving children aged 4-17 years with a suspected nonangulated distal forearm fracture. Participants underwent both x-ray and POCUS assessment. The primary outcome was sensitivity between POCUS and x-ray, the reference standard. Secondary outcomes included self-reported pain using the Faces Pain Scale-Revised, caregiver satisfaction using a five-item Likert scale, and procedure duration.

RESULTS

POCUS was performed in 169 children of whom 76 were diagnosed with a fracture including 61 buckle fractures. Sensitivity of POCUS for distal forearm fractures was 94.7% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 89.7-99.8) and specificity was 93.5% (95% CI = 88.6-98.5). POCUS was associated with a significantly lower median (interquartile range [IQR]) pain score compared to x-ray: 1 (0-2) versus 2 (1-3), respectively (median difference = 0.5; 95% CI = 0.5-1; p < 0.001) and no significant difference in median (IQR) caregiver satisfaction score: 5 (0) versus 5 (4-5), respectively (median difference = 0, 95% CI = 0, p = 1.0). POCUS was associated with a significantly lower median (IQR) procedure duration versus x-ray: 1.5 (0.8-2.2) minutes versus 27 (15-58) minutes, respectively (median difference = 34.1, 95% CI = 26.8-41.5, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that POCUS assessment of distal forearm injuries in children is accurate, timely, and associated with low levels of pain and high caregiver satisfaction.

Use of point-of-care ultrasound in long bone fractures: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

Long bone fractures (LBFs) are among the most frequent traumatic injuries seen in emergency departments. Reduction and immobilization is the most common form of treatment for displaced fractures. Point-of-care ultrasound (PoCUS) is a promising technique for diagnosing LBFs and assessing the success of reduction attempts. This article offers a comprehensive review of the use of PoCUS for the diagnosis and reduction of LBFs. Data source MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were searched through July 19, 2015. Study selection We included prospective studies that assessed test characteristics of PoCUS in 1) the diagnosis or 2) the reduction of LBFs. The methodological quality of the included studies was evaluated using the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS-2) tool. Data extraction Thirty studies met inclusion criteria (n=3,506; overall fracture rate 48.0%). Test characteristics of PoCUS for the diagnosis of LBFs were as follows: sensitivity 64.7%-100%, specificity 79.2%-100%, positive likelihood ratio (LR) 3.11-infinity, and negative LR zero-0.45. Sensitivity and specificity for the adequate reduction of LBFs with PoCUS were 94%-100% and 56%-100%, respectively. PoCUS diagnosis of pediatric forearm fractures in 10 studies showed a pooled sensitivity of 93.1% (95% confidence interval [CI], 87.2%-96.4%) and specificity of 92.9% (95% CI, 86.6%-96.4%), and PoCUS diagnosis of adult ankle fractures in four studies showed a pooled sensitivity of 89.5% (95% CI, 77.0%-95.6%) and specificity of 94.2% (95% CI, 86.1%-97.7%).

CONCLUSION

PoCUS demonstrates good diagnostic accuracy in all LBFs studied, especially in pooled results of diagnosis of pediatric forearm and adult ankle fractures. PoCUS is an appropriate adjunct to plain radiographs for LBFs.

Pediatric emergency medicine point-of-care ultrasound: summary of the evidence

The utility of point-of-care ultrasound is well supported by the medical literature. Consequently, pediatric emergency medicine providers have embraced this technology in everyday practice. Recently, the American Academy of Pediatrics published a policy statement endorsing the use of point-of-care ultrasound by pediatric emergency medicine providers.  To date, there is no standard guideline for the practice of point-of-care ultrasound for this specialty. This document serves as an initial step in the detailed "how to" and description of individual point-of-care ultrasound examinations.  Pediatric emergency medicine providers should refer to this paper as reference for published research, objectives for learners, and standardized reporting guidelines.

Bedside Ultrasound vs X-Ray for the Diagnosis of Forearm Fractures in Children

BACKGROUND

Painful forearm injuries after a fall occur frequently in children. X-ray study is currently the gold standard investigation. Ultrasound (US) is a potential alternative that avoids exposure to ionizing radiation and may be less painful than x-ray study; and familiarity and skill with US is increasing among emergency physicians.

OBJECTIVES

The primary aim of this study was to determine if a cohort of physicians with little or no previous experience with US could, after a short training program, safely exclude forearm fractures in children. Secondary aims were to compare any pain or discomfort associated with clinical examination, US, and x-ray study and to determine the acceptability of US as a diagnostic tool to parents and patients.

METHODS

A prospective, nonrandomized, interventional diagnostic study was performed on children between the ages of 0 and 16 years who had a suspected fracture of the forearm. US scanning was performed by a group of physicians, most with little or no previous US experience.

RESULTS

After the brief training program, a group of pediatric emergency physicians could diagnose forearm fractures in children with a sensitivity of 91.5% and a specificity of 87.6%. Pain associated with US was no better or worse than pain associated with x-ray study. Patients and parents preferred US over x-ray study as an investigation modality for suspected forearm fractures.

CONCLUSION

A group of pediatric emergency physicians with limited previous experience could, after a short training program, diagnose forearm fractures in children. Pain associated with US was no better or worse than pain associated with x-ray study.

Traumatic avulsion of the superior extensor retinaculum of the ankle as a cause of subperiosteal haematoma of the distal fibula in children. A retrospective study of 7 cases

OBJECTIVE

To describe a new sonographic feature for a traumatic lesion of the ankle in children.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We present a retrospective review of superior extensor retinaculum (SER) avulsions diagnosed by ultrasound (US) as a cause of subperiosteal haematoma (SPH) and periosteal apposition of the distal fibula in seven children (3 girls and 4 boys, mean age 13.4 years; age range 10-15 years) after an inversion trauma of the ankle. Two children were subsequently examined with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

RESULTS

At the acute phases (6 children), US showed a hypoechoic collection with periosteal elevation at the fibular insertion of the SER. The fibular cortex and growth plate were unremarkable. The SPH was isolated in three cases and associated with an anterior talofibular ligament sprain in four. In two cases, MRI confirmed the SER periosteal avulsion and the integrity of the distal fibula. At the later phase (one child), US showed a periosteal apposition at the fibular insertion of the SER with hypoechoic thickening of the SER and power Doppler hyperaemia.

CONCLUSION

This is the first sonographic description of SER avulsion as cause of SPH of the distal fibula in children. SPH in children should not be considered as pathognomonic of a Salter-Harris type 1 lesion of the distal fibula. Later, it may be responsible for persistent ankle pain. Therefore, SER may be systematically explored in children during US examination of the ankle after trauma.

Diagnostic value of ultrasonography in elbow trauma in children: Prospective study of 34 cases

INTRODUCTION

Among the various elbow injuries in children that initially have normal radiographs, a certain number of occult fractures are only diagnosed correctly after the fact, during a follow-up visit.

PURPOSE

This study evaluated the diagnostic contribution of ultrasonography in the treatment of acute elbow injuries in children and the strategic and economic impact of using this tool alongside radiography.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

During this prospective study performed between January 1 and April 1 2014, elbow ultrasonography was performed within 6 days in all children under 15 years of age with a suspected occult fracture. The ultrasonography exam looked for lipohemarthrosis, the posterior fat pad sign and cortical disruption. If no fracture was visible on ultrasonography, a removable splint was given to the patient to relieve pain, and no radiological or clinical follow-up was scheduled. The patients were contacted again at least 15 days later to determine whether an undetected fracture was present. Lastly, we evaluated the cost of treatment with and without ultrasonography in the cases where no fracture was diagnosed.

RESULTS

In 13 cases, ultrasonography revealed lipohemarthrosis and a fat pat sign, with cortical disruption also present in 11 of these cases. In two cases, the diagnosis was made based solely on the presence of lipohemarthrosis and a fat pat sign. There were seven lateral condyle fractures, two medial epicondyle fractures and two supracondylar fractures. Among the 21 patients with normal ultrasonography, no fracture was diagnosed later on. In patients without a fracture, using ultrasonography resulted in a cost savings of €29.10 per patient versus not using it.

CONCLUSION

In our study, ultrasonography is a sensitive examination for the diagnosis of occult elbow fractures in children. When the radiography and ultrasonography are both normal, the possibility of fracture can be rule out definitively, which reduces the need for immobilization, follow-up and treatment costs. The findings of this preliminary study should be validated with a larger prospective study.

Ultrasound-Assisted Distal Radius Fracture Reduction

Introduction

Closed reduction of distal radius fractures (CRDRF) is a commonly performed emergency department (ED) procedure. The use of point-of-care ultrasound (PoCUS) to diagnose fractures and guide reduction has previously been described. The primary objective of this study was to determine if the addition of PoCUS to CRDRF changed the perception of successful initial reduction. This was measured by the rate of further reduction attempts based on PoCUS following the initial clinical determination of achievement of best possible reduction.

Methods 

We performed a multicenter prospective cohort study, using a convenience sample of adult ED patients presenting with a distal radius fracture to five Canadian EDs. All study physicians underwent standardized PoCUS training for fractures. Standard clinically-guided best possible fracture reduction was initially performed. PoCUS was then used to assess the reduction adequacy. Repeat reduction was performed if deemed indicated. A post-reduction radiograph was then performed. Clinician impression of reduction adequacy was scored on a 5 point Likert scale following the initial clinically-guided reduction and following each PoCUS scan and the post-reduction radiograph.

Results 

There were 131 patients with 132 distal radius fractures. Twelve cases were excluded prior to analysis. There was no significant difference in the assessment of the initial reduction status by PoCUS as compared to the clinical exam (mean score: 3.8 vs. 3.9; p = 0.370; OR 0.89; 95% CI 0.46 to 1.72; p = 0.87). Significantly fewer cases fell into the uncertain category with PoCUS than with clinical assessment (2 vs 12; p = 0.008). Repeat reduction was performed in 49 patients (41.2%). Repeat reduction led to a significant improvement (p < 0.001) in the PoCUS determined adequacy of reduction (mean score: 4.3 vs 3.1; p < 0.001). In this group, the odds ratio for adequate vs. uncertain or inadequate reduction assessment using PoCUS was 12.5 (95% CI 3.42 to 45.7; p < 0.0001). There was no significant difference in the assessment of reduction by PoCUS vs. radiograph.

Conclusions

PoCUS-guided fracture reduction leads to repeat reduction attempts in approximately 40% of cases and enhances certainty regarding reduction adequacy when the clinical assessment is unclear.

Ultrasound in the Diagnostics of Metaphyseal Forearm Fractures in Children: A Systematic Review and Cost Calculation

OBJECTIVES

Metaphyseal forearm fractures are a common occurrence in childhood accounting up to 20% of all pediatric fractures. The standard diagnostic procedure is an x-ray scan. Sonographic examinations could be an alternative that avoids exposition to ionizing radiation and possibly reduces pain, time, and costs. This is a systematic review of clinical studies evaluating ultrasound as a possible alternative to radiographs in diagnosing metaphyseal forearm fractures in children.

METHODS

A systematic literature research for diagnostic studies and reviews was conducted in EMBASE, MEDLINE, and the Cochrane Library in May 2013 and updated in May 2014. In addition, reference lists of publications included were scanned. Outcome parameters were diagnostic accuracy, costs, examination time, and the assessment of pain. The study population is defined as children, because forearm fractures are very common in this age group and the impact of radiation on younger patients is greater than that on adults. Methodological quality of the studies has been assessed with Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies-2. In addition, we carried out a cost center accounting.

RESULTS

Eight diagnostic studies and 2 reviews were included in the analysis. The risk of bias of 4 studies was low; and of the other 4 ones, it was moderate. Critical aspects were missing or inaccurate blinding and insufficient descriptions of the study protocol, especially the order of examinations.Twenty-six to 115 patients within the age of 0 to 21 years were included in the studies. Sensitivity ranged from 64% to 100% and specificity did between 73% and 100%. Sensitivity was in six studies and specificity was in seven studies higher than 90%.Chaar-Alvarez et al reported an average time reduction of 25 minutes by using sonography instead of x-ray and a reduction of pain from 1.7 to 1.2 points on a visual analog scale (0-5 points). In 2 other studies, all patients reported pain-free sonographic examinations. The results of the cost center accounting, not being representative, were costs of &OV0556;20.54 per examination with ultrasound and &OV0556;26.60 per radiography-based one, which is a potential saving of 22.79% by replacing radiographic examinations by ultrasound.

CONCLUSIONS

Sensitivity and specificity of ultrasound examinations are high. Single study results show that sonographic examinations can be faster and less painful. In addition, the calculation model shows a tendency towards less-expensive ultrasound examinations.Further studies are needed with an adequate sample size calculation for assessing equivalence or non-inferiority of ultrasound and x-ray and to collect data on pain, examination time, and costs. The age of the older participants may be problematic because of the fact that epiphyseal plates close within the age from 15 to 22 years, which may influence the diagnostic accuracy of sonographic examinations. Therefore, future studies should contain age-stratified analyses. In addition, the calculation model for costs should be tested on a wider data base.

Association between body mass index-for-age and slipped capital femoral epiphysis: the long-term risk for subsequent slip in patients followed until physeal closure

BACKGROUND

Children who present with idiopathic slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE) have an increased risk of developing bilateral disease. Predicting which patients will develop problems with bilateral hips is important for determining treatment algorithms. This is a retrospective observational study that evaluates the relationship and risk between body mass index (BMI)-for-age and unilateral and bilateral SCFE in patients followed until physeal closure.

METHODS

This is a retrospective study of all patients with SCFE presenting to one institution from 1998-2005. Using the Center for Disease Control (CDC) references, BMI-for-age was calculated for each patient. The patients were followed up until complete closure of the bilateral proximal femoral physes, which was considered completion of the study. Statistical analysis for significant differences between groups was performed using the Kruskal-Wallis test for equality of populations. A logistic regression, controlling for age and gender, was used to identify BMI-for-age as a risk factor and to determine the significance of the odds ratios (ORs) for the relevant categorical variables-obese, overweight and healthy weight.

RESULTS

Eighty patients (56 male, 24 female) presented to a single institution between 1998 and 2005 with a diagnosis of SCFE. The mean age of patients was 12.2 years at initial presentation (range 8.5-16). Forty-eight patients (32 male, 16 female) presented with unilateral SCFE, with 22 of the 48 patients having a BMI for-age percentile ≥95 %. Thirty-two patients (24 male, 8 female) presented with bilateral SCFE, with 29 of the 32 patients having a BMI-for-age percentile ≥95 %. Patients with a BMI-for-age ≥95 % had a significantly increased risk of presentation with bilateral slips (OR 4.83; relative risk [RR] 3.01; p < 0.05]. All but one patient in this study with bilateral SCFE or unilateral SCFE with subsequent contralateral involvement had a BMI-for-age ≥85 % (44 out of 45 patients). Additionally, the overall risk of developing bilateral SCFE until physeal closure with a BMI-for-age ≥95 % was significantly increased (OR 3.84; RR 2.02; p < 0.05; number needed to treat [NNT] 3.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Previous work has established a relationship between BMI and SCFE. The CDC BMI-for-age growth charts more accurately measure obesity in the pediatric population compared to BMI and are therefore a more appropriate reference tool. This study demonstrates an association between obesity measured by BMI-for-age percentiles and SCFE. This study also demonstrates an association between BMI-for-age and risk for bilateral SCFE at presentation as well as overall incidence of developing bilateral SCFE in the obese pediatric population. By defining the at-risk population through BMI-for-age, physicians can screen the pediatric patient population and provide early strategies for therapeutic weight loss which may reduce the incidence of SCFE.

Ultrasound for Distal Forearm Fracture: A Systematic Review and Diagnostic Meta-Analysis

Study Objective

To determine the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound for detecting distal forearm fractures.

Methods

A systematic review and diagnostic meta-analysis was performed according to the PRISMA statement. We searched MEDLINE, Web of Science and the Cochrane Library from inception to September 2015. All prospective studies of the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound versus radiography as the reference standard were included. We excluded studies with a retrospective design and those with evidence of verification bias. We assessed the methodological quality of the included studies with the QUADAS-2 tool. We performed a meta-analysis of studies evaluating ultrasound to calculate the pooled sensitivity and specificity with 95% confidence intervals (CI95%) using a bivariate model with random effects. Subgroup and sensitivity analysis were used to examine the effect of methodological differences and other study characteristics.

Results

Out of 867 publications we included 16 studies with 1,204 patients and 641 fractures. The pooled test characteristics for ultrasound were: sensitivity 97% (CI95% 93–99%), specificity 95% (CI95% 89–98%), positive likelihood ratio (LR) 20.0 (8.5–47.2) and negative LR 0.03 (0.01–0.08). The corresponding pooled diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) was 667 (142–3,133). Apparent differences were shown for method of viewing, with the 6-view method showing higher specificity, positive LR, and DOR, compared to the 4-view method.

Conclusion

The present meta-analysis showed that ultrasound has a high accuracy for the diagnosis of distal forearm fractures in children when used by proper viewing method. Based on this, ultrasound should be considered a reliable alternative, which has the advantages of being radiation free.

Femur Fracture Diagnosis and Management Aided by Point-of-Care Ultrasonography

We describe a point-of-care ultrasonography to facilitate diagnosis of a femur fracture in a 13-year-old adolescent boy. Rapid detection of the fracture, which was not possible by physical examination alone, permitted immediate stabilization of the leg with traction, rapid communication with orthopedic surgeons, and facilitated analgesic therapy before transport and movement to obtain radiographs.

Musculoskeletal injuries in a resource-constrained environment: comparing diagnostic accuracy of on-the-spot ultrasonography and conventional radiography for bone fracture screening during the Paris-Dakar rally raid

Background

Ultrasound (US) is a good first-line alternative for the diagnosis of bone fractures in adults as well as children. Our study shows that, compared to X-ray, in a resource-constrained environment, on-site US has a high sensitivity (98%) and specificity (96%) in the diagnosis of bone fractures.

Purpose

To compare the accuracy of on-the-spot US with conventional radiography in the screening for bone fractures during the Paris–Dakar rally raid.

Material and Methods

Eighty-three patients (81 men, 2 women) with clinically suspected bone fractures were included in 2013 and 2014. They underwent X-ray and US on the spot, blindly interpreted by two musculoskeletal radiologists. Using X-ray as gold standard, we calculated sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) for US, for each anatomic location. The accuracy of US and radiography were also assessed, as were the number of fragments and their degree of displacement (Student’s t-test).

Results

Compared with X-ray, sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV of on-site US were, respectively, for the presence (or absence) of fractures: 98%, 98%, 100%, and 95%. The accuracy of US was 99%. Only one radial styloid process fracture was misdiagnosed with US. There was no significant difference between US and X-ray (P > 0.93) concerning the number of fragments and their degree of displacement.

Conclusion

Bedside musculoskeletal ultrasound performed by trained musculoskeletal radiologists is a useful method in determining and assessing bone fractures in a resource constrained environment.

Sonography of occult rib and costal cartilage fractures: a case series

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this case series is to describe the use of diagnostic ultrasound (US) in the detection of occult rib and costal cartilage fractures presenting as chest wall pain to a chiropractic clinic.

CLINICAL FEATURES

Three patients presented with chest wall pain and tenderness. Two of the patients presented with acute chest wall injury and 1 carried a previous diagnosis of rib fracture after trivial trauma 2 months earlier.

INTERVENTION AND OUTCOMES

Diagnostic US was selected as a non-ionizing imaging tool for these patients after negative digital radiography studies. All fractures were considered isolated as there was no associated injury, such as pneumothorax. Both of the acute cases were followed up to complete healing (evidence of osseous union) using US. All patients eventually achieved pain-free status.

CONCLUSION

In these cases, US was more sensitive than radiography for diagnosing these cases of acute rib and costal cartilage fractures. Early recognition of rib injury could avoid potential complications from local manipulative therapy.

Ultrasound-assisted closed reduction of distal radius fractures

PURPOSE

To assess the accuracy and ability of ultrasound for monitoring closed reduction for distal radius fractures.

METHODS

Consecutive patients undergoing ultrasound-guided closed reduction of acute, displaced distal radius fractures between January 2003 and December 2006 at our department were enrolled. The control group was extracted from patients who underwent a closed reduction for similar fractures under fluoroscopy or without any imaging assistance. To confirm the accuracy of the ultrasonography measurements, displacement distance values were compared with those on radiographic imaging before and after reduction. X-ray parameters for pre- and postreduction, reduction time, total cost, and success rate were compared between the ultrasound-guided and the control groups.

RESULTS

The ultrasound-guided group consisted of 43 patients (mean age, 68 y) and the control group consisted of 57 patients, which included 35 patients (mean age, 74 y) with fluoroscopic reduction and of 22 patients (mean age, 72 y) with reduction unaided by imaging. There were no significant displacement differences between radiographic and ultrasound measurements. In x-ray parameters for pre- and postreduction, there were no significant differences between the 2 groups. Ultrasound-guided reduction took longer than the other 2 methods. The success rate of the ultrasound and the fluoroscopic groups were similar (95% and 94%, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that ultrasound assistance can aid reduction of distal radius fractures as well as fluoroscopy.

TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic II.

A comparative study on the diagnostic utility of ultrasonography with conventional radiography and computed tomography scan in detection of zygomatic arch and mandibular fractures

Objectives:

The objective of the following study is to evaluate the usefulness of ultrasonography (USG) in comparison with conventional radiography and computed tomography (CT) scan in the diagnosis of zygomatic arch and mandibular fractures.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 40 patients with suspected fracture of the zygomatic arch and/or mandibular fractures were included in the study. Two groups (one for zygomatic arch fractures and the other for mandibular fractures) of 20 patients each were designed for the study. Ultrasonographic examinations were performed using small linear probe (LA435, Siemens Acuson Antares) with 10 MHz frequency. Data from CT and conventional radiography were compared with that of USG.

Results:

Sensitivity and specificity of USG in assessing zygomatic arch fractures were 100% and 100%, respectively; and that of mandibular fractures were 94.74% and 100%, respectively. Overall sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of USG against CT in diagnosing zygomatic arch and mandibular fractures were found out to be 97.4%, 100%, 100%, and 66.7%, respectively.

Conclusion:

USG is a very reliable tool in detection of fractures involving zygomatic arch and mandible. It can be used for screening of suspected fractures of zygomatic arch and mandible to avoid unnecessary radiation exposure from conventional radiography and CT scans.

A prospective study of pediatric hand fractures and review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

Hand fractures represent a leading cause of morbidity in children. However, little information exists correlating the mechanisms and environment of injury with outcomes and treatments. We examine the demographics, etiology, anatomic location, mechanism, and management of pediatric hand fractures in our center's hand unit.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective observational study on all children with acute hand fractures evaluated in the Plastic Surgery Emergency Clinic during a 3-month period in 2010. Data pertaining to demographics, referral patterns, injury pattern, clinical outcomes, and other factors related to hand fractures were then analyzed and interpreted.

RESULTS

Most children were referred by our institution's emergency department. More than 60% were boys, and nearly half were between 10 and 15 years old. The right and left hands were injured at equal rates. Most of the injuries (90%) occurred in the afternoon or evening. More than 85% occurred in urban, rather than rural, environments. Crush injuries were the leading cause in toddlers, whereas sports-related injuries became the major cause of injury in older groups. Proximal phalanges were the most common bone injured, and the fifth digit was the most commonly injured digit. More than 80% of the fractures were managed nonsurgically.

CONCLUSIONS

The pattern of pediatric hand fracture in different age groups is highlighted in this article. The observations from this study will hopefully encourage further review with a larger cohort and a focus on preventative measures for pediatric hand fractures.

Bedside hip ultrasonography in the pediatric emergency department: a tool to guide management in patients presenting with limp

We present a case of a 3-year-old girl brought to the emergency department for evaluation of limp after falling off the monkey bars 1 day prior. X-rays of the entire left lower extremity were normal with no evidence of fracture, dislocation, or effusion. Point-of-care ultrasound of the left hip demonstrated a hip effusion, which prompted further imaging, ultimately revealing an occult fracture of the left proximal femoral metaphysis. This case demonstrates the ability of point-of-care ultrasound to guide the management of patients presenting to the pediatric emergency department with musculoskeletal complaints.

Accuracy of the sonographic fat pad sign for primary screening of pediatric elbow fractures: a preliminary study

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of the sonographic fat pad sign (FPS) as a predictor for pediatric elbow fractures.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This is a prospective study of children under 14 years with suspected elbow fractures. All participants underwent at first ultrasonography focused on a FPS followed by standard elbow radiographs. US findings were compared to final fracture diagnosis.

RESULTS

38 out of 79 children had an elbow fracture. A sonographic FPS predicted an elbow fracture with a sensitivity/specificity of 97.3/90.5 %, positive/negative likelihood ratios (LR) were 10.2/0.03 and correct/false classification rates were 93.7/6.3 %. Primary US findings were later reviewed by a blinded physician giving a congruity of 96.2 %. These secondary US findings predicted an elbow fracture with a sensitivity/specificity of 92.1/92.7 %, positive/negative LRs were 12.6/0.09 and correct/false classification rates were 92.4/7.5 %.

CONCLUSION

The sonographic FPS could serve as a useful screening tool in primary evaluation of pediatric elbow injuries. If a fracture is unlikely after clinical and US evaluation, additional radiographs are dispensable, thereby potentially minimizing the radiation burden in childhood and reducing the length of stay in the Emergency Department.

Late diagnosis of a McFarland fracture: imaging and treatment

McFarland fractures represent a type of oblique medial malleolar fracture in children that can be challenging to diagnose and treat. A 14-year-old junior league soccer player with a Salter Harris type IV McFarland fracture presented late, as the initial routine two views radiological assessment failed to reveal a clear fracture line. The addition of a mortise ankle view led to the correct diagnosis and subsequent MRI findings guided nonsurgical treatment with an excellent outcome. The debate between obtaining two or three views in closed pediatric ankle injuries according to the so-called Ottawa rules and the usefulness of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the decision making for the choice of treatment of McFarland fractures are discussed in this case report.

The use of ultrasound to detect occult or unsuspected fractures in child abuse

Occult fractures due to child abuse can be difficult to identify because there is usually no history of trauma, and chief complaints are vague. In addition, the osseous injuries are often subtle, becoming obvious only after healing begins. Missed injuries can lead to inappropriate disposition of a patient and can cause children to be placed at high risk for further injury and death. It is therefore imperative that these children be diagnosed as soon as possible. Ultrasound has some properties that are desirable for detecting fractures, especially in children. Ultrasound waves are almost completely reflected by cortical bone. Thus, fractures easily appear on an ultrasound screen. The cartilaginous nature of pediatric bones makes some fractures difficult to identify on x-ray. The nature of ultrasound waves, however, allows the cartilaginous areas of pediatric bones to be identified. This brief report presents 2 cases of children younger than 1 year presenting with vague complaints (limp, irritability) without a history of trauma. Both children underwent bedside ultrasound by a pediatric emergency medicine physician with training in emergency ultrasound. The bedside ultrasound led to the identification of occult or unsuspected fractures in both children, and state social services were notified. In both cases, the cause of the fracture was determined to be from abuse, and necessary measures were taken to ensure the child's future safety. This report demonstrates that ultrasound may be useful for early identification of some types of occult or unsuspected fractures commonly seen in cases of child abuse.

Comparing diagnostic accuracy of bedside ultrasound and radiography for bone fracture screening in multiple trauma patients at the ED

INTRODUCTION

Long bone fractures are currently diagnosed using radiography, but radiography has some disadvantages (radiation and being time consuming). The present study compared the diagnostic accuracy of bedside ultrasound and radiography in multiple trauma patients at the emergency department (ED).

METHOD

The study assessed 80 injured patients with multiple trauma from February 2011 to July 2012. The patients were older than 18 years and triaged to the cardiopulmonary resuscitation ward of the ED. Bedside ultrasound and radiography were conducted for them. The findings were separately and blindly assessed by 2 radiologists. Sensitivity, specificity, the positive and negative predictive value, and κ coefficient were measured to assess the accuracy and validity of ultrasound as compared with radiography.

RESULTS

The sensitivity of ultrasound for diagnosis of limb bone fractures was not high enough and ranged between 55% and 75% depending on the fracture site. The specificity of this diagnostic method had an acceptable range of 62% to 84%. Ultrasound negative prediction value was higher than other indices under study and ranged between 73% and 83%, but its positive prediction value varied between 33.3% and 71%. The κ coefficient for diagnosis of long bone fractures of upper limb (κ = 0.58) and upper limb joints (κ = 0.47) and long bones of lower limb (κ = 0.52) was within the medium range. However, the value for diagnosing fractures of lower limb joints (κ = 0.47) was relatively low.

CONCLUSION

Bedside ultrasound is not a reliable method for diagnosing fractures of upper and lower limb bones compared with radiography.

Ultrasound imaging of long bone fractures and healing with the split-step fourier imaging method

We applied the split-step Fourier imaging method to back-propagate the ultrasound zero-offset wavefields acquired on the bone surface to the sources of scatterers, which are the reflecting interfaces. The method required, as an input, an estimated slowness (reciprocal of half the velocity) model to map the time-dependent sonogram to the depth image, which provides the geometric properties of the interfaces. The slowness was approximated by a depth-dependent term and a first-order spatially varying perturbation. Simulated data sets were used to validate the method. The reconstructed images show proper mapping of the interfaces and the fracture, and a reasonable cortical thickness measurement with 8.3% error. The images also illustrate clearly the bone fracture healing process of a 1-mm-wide 45° inclined crack with different in-filled tissue velocities for various healing stages. Reconstruction of a fractured bone plate using data from an in vitro experiment is also presented. This study suggests that the proposed imaging method has good potential in quantification of bone fractures and monitoring of the fracture healing process.

Pucker sign in proximal humeral fractures: implications on management

Fracture of the surgical neck of humerus in young patients is a relatively rare injury. We reviewed the available material on the topic and identified puckering at the shoulder in high-energy fracture of the surgical neck as a finding which has been reported infrequently but signifies a need for open reduction. We present a review of the literature on the subject and our similar experience in two young males who had puckering and ecchymosis at the shoulder.

Diagnostic accuracy of history, physical examination, and bedside ultrasound for diagnosis of extremity fractures in the emergency department: a systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Understanding history, physical examination, and ultrasonography (US) to diagnose extremity fractures compared with radiography has potential benefits of decreasing radiation exposure, costs, and pain and improving emergency department (ED) resource management and triage time.

METHODS

The authors performed two electronic searches using PubMed and EMBASE databases for studies published between 1965 to 2012 using a strategy based on the inclusion of any patient presenting with extremity injuries suspicious for fracture who had history and physical examination and a separate search for US performed by an emergency physician (EP) with subsequent radiography. The primary outcome was operating characteristics of ED history, physical examination, and US in diagnosing radiologically proven extremity fractures. The methodologic quality of the studies was assessed using the quality assessment of studies of diagnostic accuracy tool (QUADAS-2).

RESULTS

Nine studies met the inclusion criteria for history and physical examination, while eight studies met the inclusion criteria for US. There was significant heterogeneity in the studies that prevented data pooling. Data were organized into subgroups based on anatomic fracture locations, but heterogeneity within the subgroups also prevented data pooling. The prevalence of fracture varied among the studies from 22% to 70%. Upper extremity physical examination tests have positive likelihood ratios (LRs) ranging from 1.2 to infinity and negative LRs ranging from 0 to 0.8. US sensitivities varied between 85% and 100%, specificities varied between 73% and 100%, positive LRs varied between 3.2 and 56.1, and negative LRs varied between 0 and 0.2.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with radiography, EP US is an accurate diagnostic test to rule in or rule out extremity fractures. The diagnostic accuracy for history and physical examination are inconclusive. Future research is needed to understand the accuracy of ED US when combined with history and physical examination for upper and lower extremity fractures.