Calibration of laser-saturated fluorescence measurements using Rayleigh scattering

Measurements of absolute CH concentrations by cavity ring-down spectroscopy and linear laser-induced fluorescence in laminar, counterflow partially premixed and nonpremixed flames at atmospheric pressure

We report quantitative, spatially resolved measurements of methylidyne concentration ([CH]) in laminar, counterflow partially premixed and nonpremixed flames at atmospheric pressure by using both cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) and linear laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) in the A-X (0, 0) band. Three partially premixed (phiB = 1.45, 1.6, 2.0) flames plus a single nonpremixed methane-air flame are investigated at a global strain rate of 20 s(-1). These quantitative measurements are compared with predictions from an opposed-flow flame code when utilizing two GRI chemical kinetic mechanisms (versions 2.11 and 3.0). The LIF measurements of [CH] are corrected for variations in the electronic quenching rate coefficient by using predicted major species concentrations and temperatures along with quenching cross sections for CH that are available in the literature. The peak CH concentration obtained by CRDS is used to calibrate the quenching-corrected LIF measurements. Excellent agreement is obtained between CH concentration profiles measured by using the CRDS and LIF techniques. The spatial location of the CH layer is very well predicted by GRI 3.0; moreover, the measured and predicted CH concentrations are in good agreement for all the flames of this study.

Spatial laser-wing suppression in saturated laser-induced fluorescence without spatial selection

Spatial wings of laser beams are of great concern in saturated laser-induced fluorescence. Their contribution to fluorescence is customarily avoided by resolution of laser peaks in the interaction volume. An alternative and versatile approach is formulated, based on the derivative of fluorescence with respect to laser intensity. It turns out that wing-free data are possible, although they are obtained from wing-dependent fluorescence. The advantages of this approach are exact centerline detection and simplicity of the experimental setup and procedure.

Optimization of CH fluorescence diagnostics in flames: range of applicability and improvements with hydrogen addition

This study quantifies the range of premixed flame conditions for which CH fluorescece diagnostics are applicable, and it shows that the CH fluorescence signal can be increased if some of the hydrocarbon fuel is replaced with hydrogen. The CH fluorescence signal is found to be adequate for fuel-air equivalence ratios (phi) as small as 0.85 for both methane-air and propane-air flames. The CH signal increases until a maximum at phi = 1.25 and phi = 1.35 for methane-air and propane-air flames, respectively, and then decreases for richer conditions. A strategy to increase the CH fluorescence signal and decrease interference from soot precursors is proposed by addition of the proper amount of hydrogen to the hydrocarbon fuel. Hydrogen addition reduces the background signal from soot precursors by as much as afactor of 10 and increases the CH fluorescence signal by as much as 80%. The normalized CH fluorescence measurements are compared with computations that utilize GRI-MECH 3.0 chemistry. Sources experimental uncertainties are discussed.

Quantification of NO A-X (0, 2) laser-induced fluorescence: investigation of calibration and collisional influences in high-pressure flames

Laser-induced-fluorescence techniques have been used successfully for quantitative two-dimensional measurements of nitric oxide. NO A-X(0, 2) excitation at 248 nm recently found applications in internal-combustion engines. We assess the collisional processes that influence quantification of signal intensities in terms of saturation, rotational energy transfer, and line broadening, using laminar high-pressure methane/air and n-heptane/air flames at pressures as high as 80 bars (8 x 10(6) Pa). A calibration method that is applicable in technical combustion systems based on addition of NO to the burning flame is investigated for various air/fuel ratios and pressures and yields information about the influence of NO reburn processes.

Absolute concentration measurements of CH radicals in a diamond-depositing dc-arcjet reactor

Laser-induced fluorescence in the CH (B - X) and CH (A - X) electronic transitions is used to measure absolute number density versus position for CH radicals in the plume of a 25-Torr hydrogen/argon/methane (0.8:1:0.005) dc arcjet during the chemical vapor deposition of diamond film. The laser-induced-fluorescence signal is calibrated with argon Rayleigh scattering, and the resultant concentration of the CH radical in the center of the arcjet plume is found to be (3.5 +/- 0.8) x 10(12) molecules/cm(3). The characterization of the plasma plume shows three different regions in the reacting gas: nozzle, plume, and boundary layer. We observe substantial differences in spatial distribution of gas temperature, collisional quenching, and CH number density among these regions.

Calibration source for OH laser-induced fluorescence-density measurements with thermally dissociated H2O in atmospheric air

A calibration technique for OH laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) density measurements through the use of the thermal dissociation of ambient H(2)O in an atmospheric air furnace with a tunable KrF laser has been demonstrated. The stable and uniform concentration of OH produced in the furnace permits direct calibration of LIF signals without the uncertainties associated with reference flames. The presence of OH in atmospheric air that is heated to temperatures exceeding 1500 K is sufficient for LIF measurements with most OH LIF laser systems. The measured OH density is found to agree well with the computed OH chemical-equilibrium density over a temperature range of 1500-1850 K.

Measurements of atomic sodium in flames by asynchronous optical sampling: theory and experiment

Asynchronous optical sampling (ASOPS) is a pump-probe method for the measurement of species concentrations in turbulent high-pressure flames. We show that rapid measurement of species number density can be achieved in a highly quenched environment by maintaining a constant beat frequency between the mode-locking frequencies of the pump and the probe lasers. A model for the ASOPS method based on rate equation theory for three- and four-level atoms is presented. A number of improvements are made to the basic ASOPS instrument, which result in a greatly enhanced signal-to-noise ratio. Atomic sodium is aspirated into an atmospheric pressure C(2)H(4)/O(2)/N(2) flame and detected with the ASOPS instrument. When excited-state lifetimes are fitted by using the ASOPS theory, a 3P((1/2),3/2) ? 3S((1/2)) quenching-rate coefficient of 1.72 x 10(9) s(-1) and a 3P(3/2) ? 3P((1/2)) doublet-mixing rate coefficient of 3.66 x 109 s(-1) are obtained, in excellent agreement with literature values. ASOPS signals obtained over a wide range of pump and probe beam powers validate the rate equation theory. Improvements are suggested to improve the signal-to-noise ratio, since the present results are limited to laminar flows.

Saturated fluorescence measurements of the hydroxyl radical in laminar high-pressure C(2)H(6)/O(2)/N(2) flames

We demonstrate saturation of a transition of the OH molecule in high-pressure flames by obtaining saturation curves in C(2)H(6)/O(2)/N(2) laminar flames at 1, 6.1, 9.2, and 12.3 atm. In addition we present quantitative fluorescence measurements of OH number density at pressures to 12.3 atm. To assess the efficacy of the balanced cross-rate model for high-pressure flames, we compare laser-saturated fluorescence measurements, which were calibrated in an atmospheric-pressure flame, with absorption measurements at 3.1 and 6.1 atm. At 3.1 atm the absorption and fluorescence measurements compare well. At 6.1 atm, however, the concentrations given by laser-saturated fluorescence are ~25% lower than the absorption values, indicating some depletion of the laser-coupled levels beyond that at atmospheric pressure. By using a reasonable estimate for the finite sensitivity to quenching, we anticipate that fluorescence measurements that are calibrated at 1 atm can be applied to flames at ~10 atm with absolute errors within +/-50%.

Ground state saturated population distribution of OH in an acetylene-air flame measured by two optical double resonance pump-probe approaches

Two optical double-resonance pump-probe techniques were used to determine the ground-state rotational population distributions of OH in an acetylene-air flame when a saturating laser beam is tuned to the Q(1)4 transition of the (0, 0) Sigma-II band. The saturated absorption technique is based on the detection of absorption by a probe laser under conditions of saturation with a pump laser and no saturation. In the fluorescence technique, a probe laser is scanned through the (1, 0) band, while a saturating pump laser, tuned to the (0, 0) band, is on or off. We found that approximately 15% of the total population of the ground state was transferred to the excited state. Perturbation of the rotational population distribution was greater for rotational levels close to the directly excited laser-coupled level. The rotational energy transfer rate in the ground state was somewhat greater than in the excited state. The assumption of the balanced cross-rate model was verified as a means of determining the absoslute OH number density with adequate accuracy.

Local OH concentration measurement in atmospheric pressure flames by a laser-saturated fluorescence method: two-optical path laser-induced fluorescence

The first (to our knowledge) measurements of number density of OH in flames at atmospheric pressure by TOPLIF are reported. TOPLIF (acronym for two optical paths laser-induced fluorescence) improves the accuracy of LIF measurements by taking into account both the spatial profile of the exciting laser intensity and the collisional transfer rate. The method is based on simultaneously recording the LIF signals from focal volumes of two different shapes. The ratio of the signals is a measure of the saturation parameter (which depends on the laser intensity and the quenching) using which accurate determination of the species number density can be deduced from the fluorescence signals. The method is valid as far as at least partial saturation is reached. First, experimental verification of the theoretical basis of the method is reported. The population of a single rovibronic level is measured as it is in most of the spectroscopic methods. TOPLIF measures this population relative to this level's population in a chosen reference flame. Absolute value can therefore be obtained if the value in the reference flame is known or measured. Absolute [OH] profiles obtained in flat flames burning at 60 and 1000 mb are presented and compared to laser absorption measurements.

Approach for a quantitative on-the-fly fluorescence diagnostic in combustion systems

The combination of a megahertz repetition rate, picosecond dye laser and gated photon counting detection is used to obtain sodium atom fluorescence lifetimes in seeded atmospheric pressure CH(4)/O(2)/diluent flames. Data acquisition times as short as 1 ms (on-the-fly) are demonstrated with a 3.8-MHz laser rep rate. The area under the fluorescence temporal profiles following laser excitation divided by the fluorescence lifetime is shown to provide a measure of sodium concentration independent of quenching environment.

Feasibility of hydroxyl concentration measurements by laser-saturated fluorescence in high-pressure flames

A feasibility study has been performed on the application of laser-saturated fluoresence (LSF) to the measurement of OH concentration in high-pressure flames. Using a numerical model for the collisional dynamics of the OH molecule under nonuniform laser excitation, we have investigated the effect of pressure on the balanced cross-rate model and determined the sensitivity of the depopulation of the laser-coupled levels to the ratio of rate coefficients describing (1) electronic quenching of the vibrational levels for which upsilon'' > 0 and (2) vibrational relaxation from upsilon'' > 0 to upsilon'' = 0. At sufficiently high pressures in near-saturated conditions, the total population of the laser-coupled levels reaches an asymptotic value, which is insensitive to the degree of saturation. When the ratio of electronic quenching is vibrational relaxation is small and the rate coefficients for rotational transfer in the ground and excited electronic states are nearly the same, the balanced cross-rate model remains a good approximation for all pressures. When the above ratio is large, depopulation of the laser-coupled levels becomes significant at high pressures, and thus the balanced crossrate model no longer holds. In these conditions, however, knowledge of the asymptotic value achieved by the laser-coupled levels could be used to correct the balanced cross-rate model and thus allow LSF measurements at sufficiently high pressures.

Spatially resolved saturated absorption measurements of OH in methane-air flames

A cross-beam saturated absorption spectroscopy technique, utilizing a single pulsed dye laser, has been developed for local concentration measurements in flames. With a differential detection of the probe and the reference laser beam intensities, a significant improvement of the technique has been achieved. In this work the basic theory of the method is discussed. Its use in combustion studies is demonstrated by presenting OH concentration profiles in two premixed laminar methane-air flames.

Local absorption measurement by laser-induced fluorescence

The method consists of determining the local absorption of a tuned laser pulse between two points close together along the laser beam by measuring the fluorescence emitted from these two points. In this way a nonintrusive local and instantaneous sampling of the laser spectral intensity is achieved at these points where the system-absorption line and subsequent linear fluorescence emission-acts as an in situ spectrometer. Problems due to fluorescence efficiency, fluorescence trapping, and detector sensitivity that could be different for the two points are overcome by using a second beam emitted by the same pulsed laser running collinearly but in the opposite direction to the first beam and with a short delay. Finally a ratio between the two pairs of fluorescence signals provides the optical depth of the medium between the two points involved. Feasibility is demonstrated by the measurement of OH absolute concentration in a homogeneous premixed flame.

Single-shot laser-saturated fluorescence measurements: a new method

A new method of laser-saturated fluorescence shot-to-shot concentration measurement is proposed. The method is based on use of the wing effect of a nonuniform laser irradiance. The measurement is independent of both the collisional transfer rate and variation in laser power. If the laser power is known it is also a method of measurement of the collisional transfer rate at any pressure.