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Clark JA, Robinson S, Espinoza EM, Bao D, Derr JB, Croft L, O'Mari O, Grover WH, Vullev VI. Poly(dimethylsiloxane) as a room-temperature solid solvent for photophysics and photochemistry. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2024; 26:8062-8076. [PMID: 38372740 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp05413f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Medium viscosity strongly affects the dynamics of solvated species and can drastically alter the deactivation pathways of their excited states. This study demonstrates the utility of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) as a room-temperature solid-state medium for optical spectroscopy. As a thermoset elastic polymer, PDMS is transparent in the near ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared spectral regions. It is easy to mould into any shape, forming surfaces with a pronounced smoothness. While PDMS is broadly used for the fabrication of microfluidic devices, it swells in organic solvents, presenting severe limitations for the utility of such devices for applications employing non-aqueous fluids. Nevertheless, this swelling is reversible, which proves immensely beneficial for loading samples into the PDMS solid matrix. Transferring molecular-rotor dyes (used for staining prokaryotic cells and amyloid proteins) from non-viscous solvents into PDMS induces orders-of-magnitude enhancement of their fluorescence quantum yield and excited-state lifetimes, providing mechanistic insights about their deactivation pathways. These findings demonstrate the unexplored potential of PDMS as a solid solvent for optical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Clark
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - Samantha Robinson
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - Eli M Espinoza
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Duoduo Bao
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - James B Derr
- Department of Biochemistry, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Luca Croft
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - Omar O'Mari
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - William H Grover
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - Valentine I Vullev
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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2
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He J, Kovach A, Wang Y, Wang W, Wu W, Armani AM. Stretchable optical diffraction grating from poly(acrylic acid)/polyethylene oxide stereocomplex. OPTICS LETTERS 2021; 46:5493-5496. [PMID: 34724509 DOI: 10.1364/ol.432699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Advances in optical materials, which were initially static elements, have enabled dynamically tunable optical diffraction gratings to be designed. One common tuning strategy relies on mechanical deformation of the grating pitch to modify the diffraction pattern. In the present work, we demonstrate an all-polymer tunable diffraction grating fabricated using a modified replica molding process. The poly(acrylic acid) (PAA)/polyethylene oxide (PEO) polymer stereocomplex films exhibit optical transmittance at or above 80% from 500 nm to 1400 nm and stretchability over 800% strain with reversibility under 70% strain. The imprinted gratings are characterized at 633 nm and 1064 nm under a range of strain conditions. The measured tunability agrees with finite element method modeling.
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Rengarajan V, Geng J, Huang Y. Fabrication of Tapered 3D Microstructure Arrays Using Dual-Exposure Lithography (DEL). MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11100903. [PMID: 33003512 PMCID: PMC7599893 DOI: 10.3390/mi11100903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) microstructure arrays (MSAs) have been widely used in material science and biomedical applications by providing superhydrophobic surfaces, cell-interactive topography, and optical diffraction. These properties are tunable through the engineering of microstructure shapes, dimensions, tapering, and aspect ratios. However, the current fabrication methods are often too complex, expensive, or low-throughput. Here, we present a cost-effective approach to fabricating tapered 3D MSAs using dual-exposure lithography (DEL) and soft lithography. DEL used a strip-patterned film mask to expose the SU-8 photoresist twice. The mask was re-oriented between exposures (90° or 45°), forming an array of dual-exposed areas. The intensity distribution from both exposures overlapped and created an array of 3D overcut micro-pockets in the unexposed regions. These micro-pockets were replicated to DEL-MSAs in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The shape and dimension of DEL-MSAs were tuned by varying the DEL parameters (e.g., exposure energy, inter-exposure wait time, and the photomask re-orientation angle). Further, we characterized various properties of our DEL-MSAs and studied the impact of their shape and dimension. All DEL-MSAs showed optical diffraction capability and increased hydrophobicity compared to plain PDMS surface. The hydrophobicity and diffraction angles were tunable based on the MSA shape and aspect ratio. Among the five MSAs fabricated, the two tallest DEL-MSAs demonstrated superhydrophobicity (contact angles >150°). Further, these tallest structures also demonstrated patterning proteins (with ~6–7 μm resolution), and mammalian cells, through microcontact printing and direct culturing, respectively. Our DEL method is simple, scalable, and cost-effective to fabricate structure-tunable microstructures for anti-wetting, optical-, and bio-applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yu Huang
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-435-797-5379
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Li Z, Sun R, Rahman MA, Feng J, Olah A, Baer E. Scaling effects on the optical properties of patterned nano-layered shape memory films. POLYMER 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2019.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Yamada I, Ikeda Y, Higuchi T. Fabrication of tunable diffraction grating by imprint lithography with photoresist mold. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2018; 89:053110. [PMID: 29864802 DOI: 10.1063/1.4995449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We fabricated a deformable transmission silicone [poly(dimethylsiloxane)] grating using a two-beam interference method and imprint lithography and evaluated its optical characteristics during a compression process. The grating pattern with 0.43 μm depth and 1.0 μm pitch was created on a silicone surface by an imprinting process with a photoresist mold to realize a simple, low-cost fabrication process. The first-order diffraction transmittance of this grating reached 10.3% at 632.8 nm wavelength. We also measured the relationship between the grating period and compressive stress to the fabricated elements. The grating period changed from 1.0 μm to 0.84 μm by 16.6% compression of the fabricated element in one direction, perpendicular to the grooves, and the first-order diffraction transmittance was 8.6%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itsunari Yamada
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Setsunan University, 17-8 Ikeda-Nakamachi, Neyagawa, Osaka 572-8508, Japan
| | - Yusuke Ikeda
- Department of Electronic Systems Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Shiga Prefecture, 2500, Hassaka-cho, Hikone, Shiga 522-8533, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Higuchi
- Department of Electronic Systems Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Shiga Prefecture, 2500, Hassaka-cho, Hikone, Shiga 522-8533, Japan
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Li Z, Black T, Rahman MA, Feng J, Olah A, Baer E. Opto-mechanical programming of micro-scale information on transparent multilayer shape memory film. POLYMER 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2018.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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7
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Thermal, optical, and electrical characterization of thin film coated RTV 655 bilayer system. J Appl Polym Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/app.41396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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8
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Ryba B, Förster E, Brunner R. Flexible diffractive gratings: theoretical investigation of the dependency of diffraction efficiency on mechanical deformation. APPLIED OPTICS 2014; 53:1381-1387. [PMID: 24663367 DOI: 10.1364/ao.53.001381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 01/18/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The mechanical deformations of variable elastomeric diffractive optical elements are calculated by finite element methods. Starting from optimized blazed gratings, the derived profile variations serve as an input for rigorous-coupled-wave analysis to calculate the diffraction efficiency of a spectral band from 200 to 1200 nm. Applied planar strain of up to 80% has little effect on the maximum diffraction efficiency for large grating-period-to-wavelength ratios, g/λ, with only a shift toward shorter wavelengths. With a decreasing g/λ, the maximum efficiency also decreases when stretching the grating structure. Further influences of profile design like the angle of the antiblaze facet and the use of higher-order blaze profiles were investigated. Finally, we simulate the change in the diffraction efficiency at a single wavelength of a flexible blazed grating in direct contact with a rigid glass plate. In this case, the soft matter grating is compressed and deformed to reduce the diffracting properties.
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Yamada I, Nishii J, Saito M. Deformable silicone grating fabricated with a photo-imprinted polymer mold. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2014; 85:013102. [PMID: 24517740 DOI: 10.1063/1.4861198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
A tunable transmission grating was fabricated by molding a silicone elastomer (polydimethylsiloxane). Its optical characteristics were then evaluated during compression. For fabrication, a glass plate with a photoimprinted polymer grating film was used as a mold. Both the grating period and diffraction transmittance of the molded elastomer were functions of the compressive stress. The grating period changed from 3.02 to 2.86 μm during compressing the elastomer in the direction perpendicular to the grooves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itsunari Yamada
- Department of Electronic Systems Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Shiga Prefecture, Hikone, Shiga 522-8533, Japan
| | - Junji Nishii
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Mitsunori Saito
- Department of Electronics and Informatics, Ryukoku University, Otsu, Shiga 520-2194, Japan
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Xu Z, Wang X, Han K, Li S, Liu GL. Elastomeric 2D grating and hemispherical optofluidic chamber for multifunctional fluidic sensing. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2013; 30:2466-2472. [PMID: 24323007 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.30.002466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
We present an optofluidic sensor based on an elastomeric two-dimensional (2D) grating integrated inside a hemispherical fluid chamber. A laser beam is diffracted before (reflection) and after (transmission) going through the grating and liquid in the dome chamber. The sensing mechanism is investigated and simulated with a finite-difference time-domain-based electromagnetic method. For the experiment, by analyzing the size, power, and shape of the 2D diffraction patterns, we can retrieve multiple parameters of the liquid, including the refractive index, pressure, and opacity with high sensitivity. We demonstrate that the glucose concentration can be monitored when mixed in a different concentrated phosphate-buffered saline solution. The free-solution binding of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and anti-BSA IgG is detected with this optical sensor. This low-cost, multifunctional, and reliable optofluidic sensor has the potential to be used as a monitor of biofluid, such as blood in hemodialysis.
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Fang C, Shao L, Zhao Y, Wang J, Wu H. A gold nanocrystal/poly(dimethylsiloxane) composite for plasmonic heating on microfluidic chips. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2012; 24:94-8. [PMID: 22144399 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201103517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2011] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Caihong Fang
- Department of Physics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong SAR, China
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12
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Devetak M, Zupancic B, Lebar A, Umek P, Zalar B, Domenici V, Ambrozic G, Zigon M, Copic M, Drevensek-Olenik I. Micropatterning of light-sensitive liquid-crystal elastomers. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2009; 80:050701. [PMID: 20364940 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.80.050701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2009] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate that photoisomerizable liquid-crystal elastomer soft films can be used as tunable holographic gratings. Optomechanical mechanism of imprinting one-dimensional grating structure into the soft matrix by two-beam uv laser interference can be clearly resolved from the time dependence of the reading beam diffraction patterns. We analyze the observed response in terms of cis-trans isomerization-controlled modulation of the grating profile. The grating period can be tuned reversibly by stretching or contraction of the specimen, either thermomechanically or by applying external stress. Temperature-induced modifications of the grating parameters in the vicinity of the nematic-paranematic phase transition are also examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miha Devetak
- J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Liu B, He Y, Fan P, Wang X. Azo polymer microspherical cap array: soft-lithographic fabrication and photoinduced shape deformation behavior. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2007; 23:11266-72. [PMID: 17880252 DOI: 10.1021/la7016402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
In this work, azo polymer microspherical cap arrays possessing unique photoprocessible properties have been fabricated through a soft-lithographic contact printing approach. In the process, hexagonal polystyrene (PS) colloidal arrays, obtained by the vertical deposition method, were used as masters. Poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) stamps with aligned hemisphere air voids on the surfaces were obtained by casting the precursor against the colloidal arrays. By using the stamps and a solution of an epoxy-based azo polymer (BP-AZ-CA) as "ink", the microspherical cap arrays were fabricated by pressing the "inked" surfaces against substrates. Uniform 2D arrays of the submicrometer spherical caps could be obtained on the substrates after peeling off the stamps and drying. The characteristic sizes of the arrays depended on some adjustable features, such as the diameters of PS spheres and concentrations of the "inks" used in the process. After exposure to a linearly polarized Ar+ laser single beam, the spherical caps could be stretched along the polarization direction, and the arrays were consequently transformed into ellipsoidal cap arrays. Upon irradiation of interfering p-polarized Ar+ laser beams, only the spherical caps in the bright fringes were deformed by the light irradiation, which resulted in more complicated surface relief patterns. The observation gives another well-defined example of the photoinduced mass migration in the submicrometer scale. The approach can potentially be applied to fabrication of microlens arrays with different converging rate in two directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Liu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Laboratory for Advanced Materials, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, P. R. China
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14
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Roman GT, Kennedy RT. Fully integrated microfluidic separations systems for biochemical analysis. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1168:170-88; discussion 169. [PMID: 17659293 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2007] [Accepted: 06/05/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade a tremendous amount of research has been performed using microfluidic analytical devices to detect over 200 different chemical species. Most of this work has involved substantial integration of fluid manipulation components such as separation channels, valves, and filters. This level of integration has enabled complex sample processing on miniscule sample volumes. Such devices have also demonstrated high throughput, sensitivity, and separation performance. Although the miniaturization of fluidics has been highly valuable, these devices typically rely on conventional ancillary equipment such as power supplies, detection systems, and pumps for operation. This auxiliary equipment prevents the full realization of a "lab-on-a-chip" device with complete portability, autonomous operation, and low cost. Integration and/or miniaturization of ancillary components would dramatically increase the capability and impact of microfluidic separations systems. This review describes recent efforts to incorporate auxiliary equipment either as miniaturized plug-in modules or directly fabricated into the microfluidic device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory T Roman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1055, USA
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Bao K, Zhang B, Wang Z, Dai T, Kang X, Chen Z, Xu K, Ji H, Chen Y, Gan Z. Improvement of surface light extraction from flip-chip GaN-based LED by embossing of thermosetting polymers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/pssc.200673519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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16
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Liu B, Wang M, He Y, Wang X. Duplication of photoinduced azo polymer surface-relief gratings through a soft lithographic approach. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2006; 22:7405-10. [PMID: 16893245 DOI: 10.1021/la061178n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
In this work, a soft lithographic approach has been developed to duplicate photoinduced surface-relief-gratings (SRGs) of azo polymer films to generate the surface pattern replicas composed of different materials on various substrates. For this purpose, thin films of an epoxy-based azo polymer (BP-AZ-CA) were prepared by spin-coating, and SRGs with different structures were inscribed by exposing the films to interference patterns of Ar(+) laser beams at modest intensity (150 mW/cm(2)). Using the azo polymer films as masters, stamps of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) were prepared by replica molding. The PDMS stamps were then used to transfer the solutions of poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT), multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWNT), and BP-AZ-CA to different substrates by contact printing. Through this process, surface pattern replicas made of the functional materials were obtained. The pattern formation and quality depended on the factors such as the solution concentration, contacting time in the printing process, and printing pressure. Under the proper conditions, the printed patterns showed the same grating periods as the masters and the same relief depths as the stamps (replicas of the masters). This approach, showing some attractive characteristics such as the easiness of master preparation and the versatility of soft fabrication processes, can be applied to the fabrications of optical functional surfaces, sensors, and photonic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Liu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Laboratory for Advanced Materials, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, P. R. China
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Hofmann O, Wang X, Cornwell A, Beecher S, Raja A, Bradley DDC, Demello AJ, Demello JC. Monolithically integrated dye-doped PDMS long-pass filters for disposable on-chip fluorescence detection. LAB ON A CHIP 2006; 6:981-7. [PMID: 16874366 DOI: 10.1039/b603678c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
We report the fabrication of high quality monolithically integrated optical long-pass filters, for use in disposable diagnostic microchips. The filters were prepared by incorporating dye molecules directly into the microfluidic chip substrate, thereby providing a fully integrated solution that removes the usual need for discrete optical filters. In brief, lysochrome dyes were added to a poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) monomer prior to moulding of the microchip from a structured SU-8 master. Optimum results were obtained using 1 mm layers of PDMS doped with 1200 microg mL(-1) Sudan II, which resulted in less than 0.01% transmittance below 500 nm (OD 4), >80% above 570 nm, and negligible autofluorescence. These spectral characteristics compare favourably with commercially available Schott-glass long-pass filters, indicating that high quality optical filters can be straightforwardly integrated into the form of PDMS microfluidic chips. The filters were found to be robust in use, showing only slight degradation after extended illumination and negligible dye leaching after prolonged exposure to aqueous solutions. The provision of low cost high quality integrated filters represents a key step towards the development of high-sensitivity disposable microfluidic devices for point-of-care diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Hofmann
- Molecular Vision Ltd., 90 Fetter Lane, London EC4A 1JP, UK
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Kocabas A, Ay F, Dâna A, Kiyat I, Aydinli A. High-refractive-index measurement with an elastomeric grating coupler. OPTICS LETTERS 2005; 30:3150-2. [PMID: 16342705 DOI: 10.1364/ol.30.003150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
An elastomeric grating coupler fabricated by the replica molding technique is used to measure the modal indices of a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) planar waveguide structure. Because of the van der Waals interaction between the grating mold and the waveguide, the elastomeric stamp makes conformal contact with the waveguide surface, inducing a periodic index perturbation at the contact region. The phase of the incident light is changed to match the guided modes of the waveguide. The modal and bulk indices are obtained by measuring the coupling angles. This technique serves to measure the high refractive index with a precision better than 10(-3) and allows the elastomeric stamp to be removed without damaging the surface of the waveguide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Askin Kocabas
- Türk Telekom Bilkent Laboratory, Department of Physics, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey
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Affiliation(s)
- Younan Xia
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138; e-mail:
| | - George M. Whitesides
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138; e-mail:
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Qin D, Xia Y, Rogers JA, Jackman RJ, Zhao XM, Whitesides GM. Microfabrication, Microstructures and Microsystems. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 1998. [DOI: 10.1007/3-540-69544-3_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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