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Schrempf M, Haluza D, Simic S, Riechelmann S, Graw K, Seckmeyer G. Is Multidirectional UV Exposure Responsible for Increasing Melanoma Prevalence with Altitude? A Hypothesis Based on Calculations with a 3D-Human Exposure Model. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2016; 13:ijerph13100961. [PMID: 27690069 PMCID: PMC5086700 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph13100961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Revised: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In a recent study, melanoma incidence rates for Austrian inhabitants living at higher altitudes were found to increase by as much as 30% per 100 m altitude. This strong increase cannot simply be explained by the known increase of erythemally-weighted irradiance with altitude, which ranges between 0.5% and 4% per 100 m. We assume that the discrepancy is partially explainable by upwelling UV radiation; e.g., reflected by snow-covered surfaces. Therefore, we present an approach where the human UV exposure is derived by integrating incident radiation over the 3D geometry of a human body, which enables us to take upwelling radiation into account. Calculating upwelling and downwelling radiance with a radiative transfer model for a snow-free valley and for snow-covered mountain terrain (with albedo of 0.6) yields an increase in UV exposure by 10% per 100 m altitude. The results imply that upwelling radiation plays a significant role in the increase of melanoma incidence with altitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schrempf
- Institute of Meteorology and Climatology, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover 30419, Germany.
| | - Daniela Haluza
- Institute of Environmental Health, Center for Public Health, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria.
| | - Stana Simic
- Institute of Meteorology, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna 1190, Austria.
| | - Stefan Riechelmann
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Braunschweig 38116, Germany.
| | - Kathrin Graw
- Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach 63067, Germany.
| | - Gunther Seckmeyer
- Institute of Meteorology and Climatology, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover 30419, Germany.
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Wagner J, Angelini F, Blumthaler M, Fitzka M, Gobbi G, Kift R, Kreuter A, Rieder H, Simic S, Webb A, Weihs P. Investigation of the 3-D actinic flux field in mountainous terrain. ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH 2011; 102:300-310. [PMID: 26412915 PMCID: PMC4459542 DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2010] [Revised: 07/14/2011] [Accepted: 07/20/2011] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
During three field campaigns spectral actinic flux was measured from 290-500 nm under clear sky conditions in Alpine terrain and the associated O3- and NO2-photolysis frequencies were calculated and the measurement products were then compared with 1-D- and 3-D-model calculations. To do this 3-D-radiative transfer model was adapted for actinic flux calculations in mountainous terrain and the maps of the actinic flux field at the surface, calculated with the 3-D-radiative transfer model, are given. The differences between the 3-D- and 1-D-model results for selected days during the campaigns are shown, together with the ratios of the modeled actinic flux values to the measurements. In many cases the 1-D-model overestimates actinic flux by more than the measurement uncertainty of 10%. The results of using a 3-D-model generally show significantly lower values, and can underestimate the actinic flux by up to 30%. This case study attempts to quantify the impact of snow cover in combination with topography on spectral actinic flux. The impact of snow cover on the actinic flux was ~ 25% in narrow snow covered valleys, but for snow free areas there were no significant changes due snow cover in the surrounding area and it is found that the effect snow-cover at distances over 5 km from the point of interest was below 5%. Overall the 3-D-model can calculate actinic flux to the same accuracy as the 1-D-model for single points, but gives a much more realistic view of the surface actinic flux field in mountains as topography and obstruction of the horizon are taken into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.E. Wagner
- Institute for Meteorology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter-Jordan-Straße 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - F. Angelini
- Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, Rome, Italy
| | - M. Blumthaler
- Division for Biomedical Physics, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - M. Fitzka
- Institute for Meteorology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter-Jordan-Straße 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - G.P. Gobbi
- Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, Rome, Italy
| | - R. Kift
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - A. Kreuter
- Division for Biomedical Physics, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - H.E. Rieder
- Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - S. Simic
- Institute for Meteorology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter-Jordan-Straße 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - A. Webb
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - P. Weihs
- Institute for Meteorology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter-Jordan-Straße 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
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Staiger H, Kaurola J, de Backer H. Gridded daily European solar cloud modification factors derived from ERA-40 information and pyranometer observations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd013718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Medhaug I, Olseth J, Reuder J. UV radiation and skin cancer in Norway. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2009; 96:232-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2009.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2009] [Revised: 06/23/2009] [Accepted: 06/26/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Foster J, Kelly R, Rango A, Armstrong R, Erbe EF, Pooley C, Wergin WP. Use of low-temperature scanning electron microscopy to compare and characterize three classes of snow cover. SCANNING 2006; 28:191-203. [PMID: 16898666 DOI: 10.1002/sca.4950280401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
This study, which uses low-temperature scanning electron microscopy (LTSEM), systematically sampled and characterized snow crystals that were collected from three unique classes of snow cover: prairie, taiga, and alpine. These classes, which were defined in previous field studies, result from exposure to unique climatic variables relating to wind, precipitation, and air temperature. Snow samples were taken at 10 cm depth intervals from the walls of freshly excavated snow pits. The depth of the snow pits for the prairie, taiga, and alpine covers were 28, 81, and 110 cm, respectively. Visual examination revealed that the prairie snow cover consisted of two distinct layers whereas the taiga and alpine covers had four distinct layers. Visual measurements were able to establish the range of crystal sizes that occurred in each layer, the temperature within the pit, and the snow density. The LTSEM observations revealed the detailed structures of the types of crystals that occurred in the snow covers, and documented the metamorphosis that transpired in the descending layers. Briefly, the top layers from two of the snow covers consisted of freshly fallen snow crystals that could be readily distinguished as plates and columns (prairie) or graupel (taiga). Alternatively, the top layer in the alpine cover consisted of older dendritic crystal fragments that had undergone early metamorphosis, that is, they had lost their sharp edges and had begun to show signs of joining or bonding with neighboring crystals. A unique layer, known as sun crust, was found in the prairie snow cover; however, successive samplings from all three snow covers showed similar stages of metamorphism that led to the formation of depth hoar crystals. These changes included the gradual development of large, three-dimensional crystals having clearly defined flat faces, sharp edges, internal depressions, and facets. The study, which indicates that LTSEM can be used to enhance visual data by systematically characterizing snow crystals that are collected at remote locations, is important for understanding the physics of snowpacks and the metamorphosis that leads to potential avalanche situations. In addition, the metamorphosis of snow crystals must be considered when microwave radiometry is used to estimate the snow water equivalent in the winter snowpack, because large snow crystals more effectively scatter passive microwave radiation than small crystals.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Foster
- Laboratory for Hydrospheric and Biospheric Sciences, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, USA
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Legagneux L, Domine F. A mean field model of the decrease of the specific surface area of dry snow during isothermal metamorphism. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1029/2004jf000181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Legagneux
- Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, CNRS; St Martin d'Hères France
| | - Florent Domine
- Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, CNRS; St Martin d'Hères France
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Dominé F, Lauzier T, Cabanes A, Legagneux L, Kuhs WF, Techmer K, Heinrichs T. Snow metamorphism as revealed by scanning electron microscopy. Microsc Res Tech 2003; 62:33-48. [PMID: 12938116 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.10384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Current theories of snow metamorphism indicate that sublimating snow crystals have rounded shapes, while growing crystals have shapes that depend on growth rates. At slow growth rates, crystals are rounded. At moderate rates, they have flat faces with rounded edges. At fast growth rates, crystals have flat faces with sharp edges, and they have hollow faces at very fast growth rates. The main growth/sublimation mechanism is thought to be by the homogeneous nucleation of new layers at or near crystal edges. It was also suggested that the equilibrium shape of snow crystals would be temperature dependent: rounded above -10.5 degrees C, and faceted below. To test these paradigms, we have performed SEM investigations of snow samples having undergone metamorphism under natural conditions, and of snow samples subjected to isothermal metamorphism at -4 degrees and -15 degrees C in the laboratory. In general, current theories predicting crystal shapes as a function of growth rates, and of whether crystals are growing or sublimating, are verified. However, the transition in equilibrium shapes from rounded to faceted at -10.5 degrees C is not observed in our isothermal experiments that reveal a predominance of rounded shapes after more than a month of metamorphism at -4 and -15 degrees C. Some small crystals with flat faces that also have sharp angles at -15 degrees C, are observed in our isothermal experiments. These faces are newly formed, and contradict current theory. Several hypotheses are proposed to explain their occurrence. One is that they are due to sublimation at emerging dislocations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florent Dominé
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de l'Environnement, 38402 Saint Martin d'Hères, cedex, France.
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Arola A. A new approach to estimating the albedo for snow-covered surfaces in the satellite UV method. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2003jd003492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Arola A. Assessment of four methods to estimate surface UV radiation using satellite data, by comparison with ground measurements from four stations in Europe. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1029/2001jd000462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Reuder J, Dameris M, Koepke P. Future UV radiation in Central Europe modelled from ozone scenarios. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 2001; 61:94-105. [PMID: 11535408 DOI: 10.1016/s1011-1344(01)00143-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Photobiologically and photochemically relevant UV radiation for the time around the years 2015 and 2050 is estimated by radiative transfer calculations using variable ozone content based on model simulations. The future cloud conditions are assumed unchanged. Assuming various emission scenarios of chlorfluorohydrocarbons (CFCs) and other trace gases, and taking into account future temperature development and changing atmospheric dynamic conditions, ozone values are simulated. On the basis of these data, three different scenarios of the future total ozone content over Central Europe are analysed, which represent from current knowledge, probable as well as optimistic (high ozone and low UV irradiance) and pessimistic (low ozone and high UV irradiance) conditions. According to these scenarios the future development of the UV radiation is expected not to follow the increasing trend of UV irradiation observed during the last three decades. The predicted changes are highly variable with season. During late winter and spring, the enhanced recent UV values will persist for the next decades. Till 2015 a further slight increase is predicted for springtime. In contrast, during summer and fall, the UV level is assumed to remain on the recent level. For 2050 a decrease to values close to that of an anthropogeneous nearly undisturbed ozone chemistry, as it was found around 1970, is predicted. In addition to average long-time variations of the UV irradiance, short-time increase may occur due to ozone minihole events or due to a large volcanic eruption. The latter can produce a marked increase in UV radiation for several months. During ozone minihole events, with maximum occurrence in spring, UV irradiance is typically increased for a few days. Such episodes must be taken into account additionally to the average UV development. They will occur also in the future and result in UV radiation increases against undisturbed conditions, which are similar to present minihole events. These differences are much larger than the average changes predicted for future ozone development.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Reuder
- Meteorologisches Institut der Universität München, Theresienstrasse 37, 80333 Münich, Germany.
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Krotkov NA, Herman JR, Bhartia PK, Fioletov V, Ahmad Z. Satellite estimation of spectral surface UV irradiance: 2. Effects of homogeneous clouds and snow. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2001. [DOI: 10.1029/2000jd900721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Gröbner J, Albold A, Blumthaler M, Cabot T, De la Casiniere A, Lenoble J, Martin T, Masserot D, Müller M, Philipona R, Pichler T, Pougatch E, Rengarajan G, Schmucki D, Seckmeyer G, Sergent C, Touré ML, Weihs P. Variability of spectral solar ultraviolet irradiance in an Alpine environment. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1029/2000jd900395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Lenoble J. Influence of the environment reflectance on the ultraviolet zenith radiance for cloudless sky. APPLIED OPTICS 2000; 39:4247-4254. [PMID: 18350005 DOI: 10.1364/ao.39.004247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
A three-dimensional Monte Carlo code is used to compute the ultraviolet zenith sky radiance; the code is validated by comparison with a successive-orders-of-scattering code. The amplifications of global irradiance, diffuse irradiance, and zenith radiance that are due to multiple reflectances between a snow-covered ground surface and the atmosphere are compared. For an inhomogeneous Lambertian surface, the contribution of the site environment is analyzed; it depends slightly on the atmospheric turbidity and on the surface reflectance distribution. However, in most cases one can expect approximately 12-15% of the reflected photon contribution to come from within 1 km about the observation site, 25-30% come from areas from 1 to 5 km from the site, 43-47% from 5 to 30 km, and still 10-15% reflected at larger distances. An average contribution function is proposed and used to compute an effective reflectance, which permits retrieval of the sky radiance within 2-4% with a one-dimensional model.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lenoble
- Laboratoire d'Optique Atmosphérique, Unité Mixte de Recherche, Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, France.
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