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Lin YT, Finlayson GD. A Rehabilitation of Pixel-Based Spectral Reconstruction from RGB Images. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:4155. [PMID: 37112497 PMCID: PMC10142338 DOI: 10.3390/s23084155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Recently, many deep neural networks (DNN) have been proposed to solve the spectral reconstruction (SR) problem: recovering spectra from RGB measurements. Most DNNs seek to learn the relationship between an RGB viewed in a given spatial context and its corresponding spectra. Significantly, it is argued that the same RGB can map to different spectra depending on the context with respect to which it is seen and, more generally, that accounting for spatial context leads to improved SR. However, as it stands, DNN performance is only slightly better than the much simpler pixel-based methods where spatial context is not used. In this paper, we present a new pixel-based algorithm called A++ (an extension of the A+ sparse coding algorithm). In A+, RGBs are clustered, and within each cluster, a designated linear SR map is trained to recover spectra. In A++, we cluster the spectra instead in an attempt to ensure neighboring spectra (i.e., spectra in the same cluster) are recovered by the same SR map. A polynomial regression framework is developed to estimate the spectral neighborhoods given only the RGB values in testing, which in turn determines which mapping should be used to map each testing RGB to its reconstructed spectrum. Compared to the leading DNNs, not only does A++ deliver the best results, it is parameterized by orders of magnitude fewer parameters and has a significantly faster implementation. Moreover, in contradistinction to some DNN methods, A++ uses pixel-based processing, which is robust to image manipulations that alter the spatial context (e.g., blurring and rotations). Our demonstration on the scene relighting application also shows that, while SR methods, in general, provide more accurate relighting results compared to the traditional diagonal matrix correction, A++ provides superior color accuracy and robustness compared to the top DNN methods.
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Safdar M, Emmel P. Toward non-metameric reflectance recovery by emulating the spectral neighborhood using corresponding color information. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2022; 39:1066-1075. [PMID: 36215537 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.451931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In learning-based reflectance reconstruction methods, usually localized training samples are used to reconstruct spectral curves. The state-of-the-art methods localize the training samples based on their colorimetric color differences with the test sample. This approach is dependent on the working color space, color difference equation, and/or illuminant used, and it may result in a metameric match. This issue can be resolved by localizing the training samples based on their spectral difference with the test sample; however, this would require an already unknown spectral curve of the test sample. In this paper, use of corresponding color information to emulate the spectral neighborhood of the test color for non-metameric reflectance recovery is proposed. The Wiener estimation method was extended by (1) using two thresholds, (i) on the color difference between the test sample and the training samples under the reference illuminant and (ii) on the color difference between the corresponding color of the test sample and the training samples under another illuminant, to mimic the spectral neighborhood of the test sample within the gamut of the training data, and (2) also using the tristimulus values of the corresponding color in the regression. Results showed that the proposed extension of the Wiener estimation method improved the reflectance recovery and hence reduced the metamerism.
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Wang L, Sole A, Hardeberg JY, Wan X. Optimized light source spectral power distribution for RGB camera based spectral reflectance recovery. OPTICS EXPRESS 2021; 29:24695-24713. [PMID: 34614820 DOI: 10.1364/oe.425401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The accuracy of recovered spectra from camera responses mainly depends on the spectral estimation algorithm used, the camera and filters selected, and the light source used to illuminate the object. We present and compare different light source spectrum optimization methods together with different spectral estimation algorithms applied to reflectance recovery. These optimization methods include the Monte Carlo (MC) method, particle swarm optimization (PSO) and multi-population genetic algorithm (MPGA). Optimized SPDs are compared with D65, D50 A and three LED light sources in simulation and reality. Results obtained show us that MPGA has superior performance, and optimized light source spectra along with better spectral estimation algorithm can provide a more accurate spectral reflectance estimation of an object surface. Meanwhile, it is found that camera spectral sensitivities weighted by optimized SPDs tend to be mutually orthogonal.
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Physically Plausible Spectral Reconstruction. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20216399. [PMID: 33182473 PMCID: PMC7665140 DOI: 10.3390/s20216399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Spectral reconstruction algorithms recover spectra from RGB sensor responses. Recent methods—with the very best algorithms using deep learning—can already solve this problem with good spectral accuracy. However, the recovered spectra are physically incorrect in that they do not induce the RGBs from which they are recovered. Moreover, if the exposure of the RGB image changes then the recovery performance often degrades significantly—i.e., most contemporary methods only work for a fixed exposure. In this paper, we develop a physically accurate recovery method: the spectra we recover provably induce the same RGBs. Key to our approach is the idea that the set of spectra that integrate to the same RGB can be expressed as the sum of a unique fundamental metamer (spanned by the camera’s spectral sensitivities and linearly related to the RGB) and a linear combination of a vector space of metameric blacks (orthogonal to the spectral sensitivities). Physically plausible spectral recovery resorts to finding a spectrum that adheres to the fundamental metamer plus metameric black decomposition. To further ensure spectral recovery that is robust to changes in exposure, we incorporate exposure changes in the training stage of the developed method. In experiments we evaluate how well the methods recover spectra and predict the actual RGBs and RGBs under different viewing conditions (changing illuminations and/or cameras). The results show that our method generally improves the state-of-the-art spectral recovery (with more stabilized performance when exposure varies) and provides zero colorimetric error. Moreover, our method significantly improves the color fidelity under different viewing conditions, with up to a 60% reduction in some cases.
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Prasad DK. Gamut expansion of consumer camera to the CIE XYZ color gamut using a specifically designed fourth sensor channel. APPLIED OPTICS 2015; 54:6146-6154. [PMID: 26193386 DOI: 10.1364/ao.54.006146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This paper discusses the design of an additional spectral filter (i.e., a fourth channel) to be used with existing camera sensors such that the camera's modified color gamut overlaps almost the full CIE XYZ color gamut. The proposed approach leverages on the matrix-R theory that states that the space of metamerism of a sensor, known as the metameric black space, can be determined directly from the camera's spectral sensitivities. Using this metameric black space, a novel fourth channel has been designed on the sensor that can expand the camera's gamut. The effectiveness of this idea has been demonstrated for five commercial cameras, Munsell color chips, and images taken under various illuminations. It is shown that the designed fourth channel is very effective in fitting the camera's color gamuts to CIE XYZ color gamut, reducing CIE LAB colorimetric distances, as well as the color differences between the camera's XYZ images and the true CIE XYZ images.
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Garcia JE, Girard MB, Kasumovic M, Petersen P, Wilksch PA, Dyer AG. Differentiating Biological Colours with Few and Many Sensors: Spectral Reconstruction with RGB and Hyperspectral Cameras. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0125817. [PMID: 25965264 PMCID: PMC4428825 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ability to discriminate between two similar or progressively dissimilar colours is important for many animals as it allows for accurately interpreting visual signals produced by key target stimuli or distractor information. Spectrophotometry objectively measures the spectral characteristics of these signals, but is often limited to point samples that could underestimate spectral variability within a single sample. Algorithms for RGB images and digital imaging devices with many more than three channels, hyperspectral cameras, have been recently developed to produce image spectrophotometers to recover reflectance spectra at individual pixel locations. We compare a linearised RGB and a hyperspectral camera in terms of their individual capacities to discriminate between colour targets of varying perceptual similarity for a human observer. MAIN FINDINGS (1) The colour discrimination power of the RGB device is dependent on colour similarity between the samples whilst the hyperspectral device enables the reconstruction of a unique spectrum for each sampled pixel location independently from their chromatic appearance. (2) Uncertainty associated with spectral reconstruction from RGB responses results from the joint effect of metamerism and spectral variability within a single sample. CONCLUSION (1) RGB devices give a valuable insight into the limitations of colour discrimination with a low number of photoreceptors, as the principles involved in the interpretation of photoreceptor signals in trichromatic animals also apply to RGB camera responses. (2) The hyperspectral camera architecture provides means to explore other important aspects of colour vision like the perception of certain types of camouflage and colour constancy where multiple, narrow-band sensors increase resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jair E. Garcia
- School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Madeline B. Girard
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Michael Kasumovic
- Ecology & Evolution Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Phred Petersen
- School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Philip A. Wilksch
- School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Adrian G. Dyer
- School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Garcia JE, Dyer AG, Greentree AD, Spring G, Wilksch PA. Linearisation of RGB camera responses for quantitative image analysis of visible and UV photography: a comparison of two techniques. PLoS One 2013; 8:e79534. [PMID: 24260244 PMCID: PMC3832603 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0079534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 09/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Linear camera responses are required for recovering the total amount of incident irradiance, quantitative image analysis, spectral reconstruction from camera responses and characterisation of spectral sensitivity curves. Two commercially-available digital cameras equipped with Bayer filter arrays and sensitive to visible and near-UV radiation were characterised using biexponential and Bézier curves. Both methods successfully fitted the entire characteristic curve of the tested devices, allowing for an accurate recovery of linear camera responses, particularly those corresponding to the middle of the exposure range. Nevertheless the two methods differ in the nature of the required input parameters and the uncertainty associated with the recovered linear camera responses obtained at the extreme ends of the exposure range. Here we demonstrate the use of both methods for retrieving information about scene irradiance, describing and quantifying the uncertainty involved in the estimation of linear camera responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jair E. Garcia
- School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Adrian G. Dyer
- School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Gale Spring
- School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Philip A. Wilksch
- School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Peyvandi S, Amirshahi SH, Hernández-Andrés J, Nieves JL, Romero J. Generalized inverse-approach model for spectral-signal recovery. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON IMAGE PROCESSING : A PUBLICATION OF THE IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING SOCIETY 2013; 22:501-510. [PMID: 22997265 DOI: 10.1109/tip.2012.2218823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We have studied the transformation system of a spectral signal to the response of the system as a linear mapping from higher to lower dimensional space in order to look more closely at inverse-approach models. The problem of spectral-signal recovery from the response of a transformation system is generally stated on the basis of the generalized inverse-approach theorem, which provides a modular model for generating a spectral signal from a given response value. The controlling criteria, including the robustness of the inverse model to perturbations of the response caused by noise, and the condition number for matrix inversion, are proposed, together with the mean square error, so as to create an efficient model for spectral-signal recovery. The spectral-reflectance recovery and color correction of natural surface color are numerically investigated to appraise different illuminant-observer transformation matrices based on the proposed controlling criteria both in the absence and the presence of noise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahram Peyvandi
- Department of Textile Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran 15914, Iran.
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Skaff S, Clark JJ. Spectral color constancy using a maximum entropy approach. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2011; 28:2385-2399. [PMID: 22048306 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.28.002385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This paper proposes a solution to the spectral color constancy problem. The method is based on a statistical model for the surface reflectance spectrum and applies a maximum entropy constraint. Unlike prior methods based on linear models, the solution process does not require a set of basis functions to be defined, nor does it require a database of spectra to be specified in advance. Experiments on simulated and real data show that spectral estimation using the maximum entropy approach is feasible and performs similarly to existing spectral methods in spite of the lower level of a priori information required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Skaff
- Xerox Research Center Webster, Xerox Corporation, Webster, New York 14580, USA.
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Clark JJ, Skaff S. A spectral theory of color perception. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2009; 26:2488-2502. [PMID: 19956315 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.26.002488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The paper adopts the philosophical stance that colors are real and can be identified with spectral models based on the photoreceptor signals. A statistical setting represents spectral profiles as probability density functions. This permits the use of analytic tools from the field of information geometry to determine a new kind of color space and structure deriving therefrom. In particular, the metric of the color space is shown to be the Fisher information matrix. A maximum entropy technique for spectral modeling is proposed that takes into account measurement noise. Theoretical predictions provided by our approach are compared with empirical colorfulness and color similarity data.
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Affiliation(s)
- James J Clark
- Centre for Intelligent Machines, McGill University, 3480 University Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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Urban P, Rosen MR, Berns RS. Spectral image reconstruction using an edge preserving spatio-spectral Wiener estimation. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2009; 26:1865-1875. [PMID: 19649126 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.26.001865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Reconstruction of spectral images from camera responses is investigated using an edge preserving spatio-spectral Wiener estimation. A Wiener denoising filter and a spectral reconstruction Wiener filter are combined into a single spatio-spectral filter using local propagation of the noise covariance matrix. To preserve edges the local mean and covariance matrix of camera responses is estimated by bilateral weighting of neighboring pixels. We derive the edge-preserving spatio-spectral Wiener estimation by means of Bayesian inference and show that it fades into the standard Wiener reflectance estimation shifted by a constant reflectance in case of vanishing noise. Simulation experiments conducted on a six-channel camera system and on multispectral test images show the performance of the filter, especially for edge regions. A test implementation of the method is provided as a MATLAB script at the first author's website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Urban
- Institute of Printing Science and Technology, Technische Universitat Darmstadt, Magdalenenenstr, Darmstadt, Germany.
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Murakami Y, Yamaguchi M, Ohyama N. Piecewise Wiener estimation for reconstruction of spectral reflectance image by multipoint spectral measurements. APPLIED OPTICS 2009; 48:2188-2202. [PMID: 19363559 DOI: 10.1364/ao.48.002188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
This study proposes a piecewise Wiener estimation method to reconstruct a spectral reflectance image from a three-band image by multipoint spectral information collected simultaneously with image acquisition. A three-band image is divided into several blocks and the spectral estimation is carried out using the Wiener estimation matrix assigned to each block. Each Wiener estimation matrix is constructed on the basis of spectral measurement data. The experimental results show that the proposed method reduces the average estimation error monotonically as the number of spectral measurements increases. In addition, the computational time of the piecewise Wiener estimation costs only severalfold of the computational time of the conventional single-matrix method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri Murakami
- Imaging Science and Engineering Laboratory, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuda-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan.
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Shimano N, Terai K, Hironaga M. Recovery of spectral reflectances of objects being imaged by multispectral cameras. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2007; 24:3211-9. [PMID: 17912312 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.24.003211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Acquisition of spectral information of objects being imaged through the use of sensor responses is important to reproduce color images under various illuminations. In the past several models have been proposed to recover the spectral reflectances from sensor responses. The accuracy of the spectral reflectances recovered by five different models is compared by using multispectral cameras. It is shown that the Wiener estimation that uses the noise variance estimated as proposed in IEEE Trans. Image Process.15, 1848 (2006) recovers the spectral reflectances more accurately than the others when the test samples are different from learning samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriyuki Shimano
- Department of Informatics, School of Science and Engineering, Kinki University, 3-4-1, Kowakae, Higashi-osaka, Osaka 577-8502, Japan.
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