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Wright T, Sparks H, Paterson C, Dunsby C. Video-rate remote refocusing through continuous oscillation of a membrane deformable mirror. JPHYS PHOTONICS 2021; 3:045004. [PMID: 34693207 PMCID: PMC8523955 DOI: 10.1088/2515-7647/ac29a2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper presents the use of a deformable mirror (DM) configured to rapidly refocus a microscope employing a high numerical aperture (NA) objective lens. An Alpao DM97-15 membrane DM was used to refocus a 40×/0.80 NA water-immersion objective through a defocus range of -50-50 μm at 26.3 sweeps s-1. We achieved imaging with a mean Strehl metric of >0.6 over a field of view in the sample of 200 × 200 μm2 over a defocus range of 77 μm. We describe an optimisation procedure where the mirror is swept continuously in order to avoid known problems of hysteresis associated with the membrane DM employed. This work demonstrates that a DM-based refocusing system could in the future be used in light-sheet fluorescence microscopes to achieve video-rate volumetric imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry Wright
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Hugh Sparks
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Carl Paterson
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Dunsby
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
- Centre for Pathology, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, United Kingdom
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Lawton PF, Buckley C, Saunter CD, Wilson C, Corbett AD, Salter PS, McCarron JG, Girkin JM. Multi-plane remote refocusing epifluorescence microscopy to image dynamic Ca 2 + events. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 10:5611-5624. [PMID: 31799034 PMCID: PMC6865095 DOI: 10.1364/boe.10.005611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Rapid imaging of multiple focal planes without sample movement may be achieved through remote refocusing, where imaging is carried out in a plane conjugate to the sample plane. The technique is ideally suited to studying the endothelial and smooth muscle cell layers of blood vessels. These are intrinsically linked through rapid communication and must be separately imaged at a sufficiently high frame rate in order to understand this biologically crucial interaction. We have designed and implemented an epifluoresence-based remote refocussing imaging system that can image each layer at up to 20fps using different dyes and excitation light for each layer, without the requirement for optically sectioning microscopy. A novel triggering system is used to activate the appropriate laser and image acquisition at each plane of interest. Using this method, we are able to achieve axial plane separations down to 15 μ m, with a mean lateral stability of ≤ 0.32 μ m displacement using a 60x, 1.4NA imaging objective and a 60x, 0.7NA reimaging objective. The system allows us to image and quantify endothelial cell activity and smooth muscle cell activity at a high framerate with excellent lateral and good axial resolution without requiring complex beam scanning confocal microscopes, delivering a cost effective solution for imaging two planes rapidly. We have successfully imaged and analysed Ca 2 + activity of the endothelial cell layer independently of the smooth muscle layer for several minutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penelope F. Lawton
- Department of Physics, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Charlotte Buckley
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
| | - Chris D. Saunter
- Department of Physics, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Calum Wilson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
| | - Alexander D. Corbett
- Department of Physics, University of Exeter, North Park Road, Exeter, EX4 4QL, UK
| | - Patrick S. Salter
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK
| | - John G. McCarron
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
| | - John M. Girkin
- Department of Physics, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
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Qu Y, Zhu S, Zhang P. A self-adaptive and nonmechanical motion autofocusing system for optical microscopes. Microsc Res Tech 2016; 79:1112-1122. [PMID: 27582009 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.22765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Revised: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
For the design of a passive autofocusing (AF) system for optical microscopes, many time-consuming and tedious experiments have been performed to determine and design a better focus criterion function, owing to the sample-dependence of this function. To accelerate the development of the AF systems in optical microscopes and to increase AF speed as well as maintain the AF accuracy, this study proposes a self-adaptive and nonmechanical motion AF system. The presented AF system does not require the selection and design of a focus criterion function when it is developed. Instead, the system can automatically determine a better focus criterion function for an observed sample by analyzing the texture features of the sample and subsequently perform an AF procedure to bring the sample into focus in the objective of an optical microscope. In addition, to increase the AF speed, the Z axis scanning of the mechanical motion of the sample or the objective is replaced by focusing scanning performed by a liquid lens, which is driven by an electrical current and does not involve mechanical motion. Experiments show that the reproducibility of the results obtained with the proposed self-adaptive and nonmechanical motion AF system is better than that provided by that of traditional AF systems, and that the AF speed is 10 times faster than that of traditional AF systems. Also, the self-adaptive function increased the speed of AF process by an average of 10.5% than Laplacian and Tenegrad functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufu Qu
- Key Laboratory of Precision Opto-mechatronics Technology, Ministry of Education, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China.
| | - Shenyu Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Precision Opto-mechatronics Technology, Ministry of Education, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Ping Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Precision Opto-mechatronics Technology, Ministry of Education, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
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Lucotte B, Balaban RS. Motion compensation for in vivo subcellular optical microscopy. J Microsc 2014; 254:9-12. [PMID: 24673143 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.12116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we focus on the impact of tissue motion on attempting to conduct subcellular resolution optical microscopy, in vivo. Our position is that tissue motion is one of the major barriers in conducting these studies along with light induced damage, optical probe loading as well as absorbing and scattering effects on the excitation point spread function and collection of emitted light. Recent developments in the speed of image acquisition have reached the limit, in most cases, where the signal from a subcellular voxel limits the speed and not the scanning rate of the microscope. Different schemes for compensating for tissue displacements due to rigid body and deformation are presented from tissue restriction, gating, adaptive gating and active tissue tracking. We argue that methods that minimally impact the natural physiological motion of the tissue are desirable because the major reason to perform in vivo studies is to evaluate normal physiological functions. Towards this goal, active tracking using the optical imaging data itself to monitor tissue displacement and either prospectively or retrospectively correct for the motion without affecting physiological processes is desirable. Critical for this development was the implementation of near real time image processing in conjunction with the control of the microscope imaging parameters. Clearly, the continuing development of methods of motion compensation as well as significant technological solutions to the other barriers to tissue subcellular optical imaging in vivo, including optical aberrations and overall signal-to-noise ratio, will make major contributions to the understanding of cell biology within the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Lucotte
- Laboratory of Cardiac Energetics, Systems Biology Center, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, U.S.A
| | - R S Balaban
- Laboratory of Cardiac Energetics, Systems Biology Center, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, U.S.A
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Kner P, Sedat JW, Agard DA, Kam Z. High-resolution wide-field microscopy with adaptive optics for spherical aberration correction and motionless focusing. J Microsc 2010; 237:136-47. [PMID: 20096044 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2818.2009.03315.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Live imaging in cell biology requires three-dimensional data acquisition with the best resolution and signal-to-noise ratio possible. Depth aberrations are a major source of image degradation in three-dimensional microscopy, causing a significant loss of resolution and intensity deep into the sample. These aberrations occur because of the mismatch between the sample refractive index and the immersion medium index. We have built a wide-field fluorescence microscope that incorporates a large-throw deformable mirror to simultaneously focus and correct for depth aberration in three-dimensional imaging. Imaging fluorescent beads in water and glycerol with an oil immersion lens we demonstrate a corrected point spread function and a 2-fold improvement in signal intensity. We apply this new microscope to imaging biological samples, and show sharper images and improved deconvolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Kner
- Keck Advanced Microscopy Laboratory and Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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Lubeigt W, Poland SP, Valentine GJ, Wright AJ, Girkin JM, Burns D. Search-based active optic systems for aberration correction in time-independent applications. APPLIED OPTICS 2010; 49:307-314. [PMID: 20090793 DOI: 10.1364/ao.49.000307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
We describe a protocol for the use of a control feedback loop incorporating an iterative optimization routine for a range of time-independent adaptive optics applications. These applications are characterized by the quasi steady state of the aberrative effects (>0.1 s) and contrast, for instance, to astronomical applications where the aberrations constantly vary at frequencies above 10 Hz. For optimal performance in such time-independent applications, the control systems typically require specialized tailoring. A typical example of two different types of time-independent adaptive optics applications--an adaptive optic microscope and an adaptive optic laser platform--are detailed and compared. It is shown that implementing a number of minor, but crucial, application-specific modifications to the control system results in an improved efficiency of an already extremely successful technique for aberration compensation. We present a description of the crucial parameters to consider in a search-based adaptive optics system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Lubeigt
- Institute of Photonics, Scottish Universities Physics Alliance (SUPA), University of Strathclyde, 106 Rottenrow, Glasgow G4 0NW, UK.
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Adaptive optics for deeper imaging of biological samples. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2009; 20:106-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2009.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2008] [Revised: 02/13/2009] [Accepted: 02/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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