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Impact of various extraction methods on fatty acid profile, physicochemical properties, and nutritional quality index of Pangus fish oil. Food Sci Nutr 2023; 11:4688-4699. [PMID: 37576032 PMCID: PMC10420784 DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.3431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine fish are high in essential omega-3 fatty acids, which are important for human health. This study evaluated the effects of four extraction methods (soxhlet extraction, SE; wet rendering, WR; acid silage, AS; microwave-assisted extraction, MAE) on the oil yield, physicochemical properties, fatty acid profile, and nutritional quality index (NQI) of pangus fish oil. The oil yield ranged from 13.50% to 21.80%, with MAE having the highest yield. Furthermore, MAE oil has the lowest free fatty acid (0.70%), peroxides (2.08 Meq/kg), and saponification (287.27 mg/g KOH) value. There were no significant differences (p > .05) in the refractive index and melting point of oils among extraction techniques. A total of 25 fatty acids were identified. However, the maximum PUFA, MUFA, and SFA recovery was observed in the SE (19.15 mg/100 g), MAE (7.99 mg/100 g), and AS (17.33 mg/100 g), respectively. In terms of NQI, SE had higher PUFA/SFA, HH, and LA/ALA ratios, while AS had higher EPA + DHA, n-3/n-6, AI, TI, and FLQ indices. Furthermore, the MAE approach yielded better ratios of n-3/n-6 and HPI index, whereas the WR method yielded a higher AI index. Therefore, MAE would be the most efficient method for extracting pangus fish oil by considering both technical feasibility and quality indices including extraction yield, best physical properties, oxidative stability, and fatty acid contents.
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2
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Gas chromatography ‒ mass spectrometry for characterisation, assessment of quality and authentication of seed and vegetable oils. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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3
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The Role of Ionic Liquid Interaction in the Separation of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters—Polyunsaturated Geometric Isomers in GC–MS. SEPARATIONS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/separations8040038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge of the type and level of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in food and clinical matrices is of practical importance, but the wide variety of fatty acids makes analyses very complex. The discrimination of the geometric isomers of fatty acid needs proper and effective separation conditions. The efficiency of three different stationary phases was evaluated by GC–MS methods in the separation of fatty acids in their methyl ester forms. Significant differences were observed in the efficiencies of polysiloxane-based (non-polar HP-5MS and medium/high polarity DB-225MS) and ionic liquid-based (SLB-IL111) columns. Baseline separation of the geometric isomers of linoleic acid methyl ester was obtained by the extremely polar SLB-IL111 column, showing a preference over the other two columns. The optimization of the experimental conditions (response linearity, limit of detection, limit of quantification, system suitability, intraday and interday repeatability and accuracy) showed the separation power of the ionic liquid interaction in the analyses by using short (25–30 m long) columns. By deducting the general principles of the interaction, predictions can be made for the separation of other isomers. The results facilitate the precise identification of various types of fatty acids in real samples for nutritional information.
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4
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Practical Considerations in Method Development for Gas Chromatography-Based Metabolomic Profiling. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1336:139-157. [PMID: 34628631 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-77252-9_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
This chapter discusses the fundamentals of gas chromatography (GC) to improve method development for metabolic profiling of complex biological samples. The selection of column geometry and phase ratio impacts analyte mass transfer, which must be carefully optimized for fast analysis. Stationary phase selection is critical to obtain baseline resolution of critical pairs, but such selection must consider important aspects of metabolomic protocols, such as derivatization and dependence of analyte identification on existing databases. Sample preparation methods are also addressed depending on the sample matrix, including liquid-liquid extraction and solid-phase microextraction.
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5
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Techniques and application in comprehensive multidimensional gas chromatography - mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1636:461788. [PMID: 33352489 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to the well-known comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) method, it is possible to define comprehensive multidimensional gas chromatography. 'Comprehensiveness' relates to analysis of the whole sample. Two-dimensional and multidimensional here refer to the use of at least two separation stages for analysis, however comprehensive 2DGC now appears to be reserved for the GC×GC method. This may be differentiated from comprehensive MDGC (CMDGC) simply by the analysis time assigned to the second (2D) column, although there does not appear to be a specific definition that relates to this analysis time parameter. A number of different implementation protocols for comprehensive MDGC are described here, that may involve either a single, or multiple, injection(s). In all cases, independent retention must be achieved on each dimension to ensure the probability of enhanced separation. An original application of a crude oil sample is presented to illustrate development of the MDGC approach that incorporates two Deans switches (DS) and a cryogenic trapping approach, performed using a sequential heart-cut (H/C) event method incremented by 0.5 min for each injection; a total of 40 injections is used to analyse the total sample. The higher peak capacity and consequently greater resolution on the long 2D column is illustrated, compared with that expected for conventional GC×GC, with tentative identification in order to classify chemical classes. Incorporating an approach to acquiring retention indices may be implemented, although its utility for petroleum hydrocarbons is limited. Structured groupings of different chemical classes, as exemplified by mono and diaromatics for the crude oil sample, were noted.
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6
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Advanced gas chromatography and mass spectrometry technologies for fatty acids and triacylglycerols analysis. Trends Analyt Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2020.115957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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7
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Examining the unique retention behavior of volatile carboxylic acids in gas chromatography using zwitterionic liquid stationary phases. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1603:288-296. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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8
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Direct equations to retention time calculation and fast simulation approach for simultaneous material selection and experimental design in comprehensive two dimensional gas chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1602:425-431. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.05.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 05/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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9
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Ionic liquid phases with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography of fatty acid methyl esters. Anal Bioanal Chem 2018; 410:4669-4677. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-018-0944-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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10
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Gibbs energy additivity approaches to QSRR in generating gas chromatographic retention time for identification of fatty acid methyl ester. Anal Bioanal Chem 2017; 409:2777-2789. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-017-0222-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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11
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Ionic liquids as stationary phases for fatty acid analysis by gas chromatography. Analyst 2017; 142:4601-4612. [DOI: 10.1039/c7an01338h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The present paper provides an overview of the application of ionic liquid (IL) columns for GC analysis of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs).
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12
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Quantification of trace fatty acid methyl esters in diesel fuel by using multidimensional gas chromatography with electron and chemical ionization mass spectrometry. J Sep Sci 2016; 39:2537-43. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201600307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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13
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In Silico Modeling of Hundred Thousand Experiments for Effective Selection of Ionic Liquid Phase Combinations in Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography. Anal Chem 2016; 88:2125-31. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b03688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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14
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Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Different Types of Vegetable Oils. J AM OIL CHEM SOC 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11746-015-2635-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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15
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Seaweed enrichment of feed supplied to farm-raised Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is associated with higher total fatty acid and LCn-3 PUFA concentrations in fish flesh. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201400166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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16
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Separation behavior of octadecadienoic acid isomers and identification of cis- and trans-isomers using gas chromatography. Lipids 2014; 50:85-100. [PMID: 25466915 DOI: 10.1007/s11745-014-3966-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Accepted: 10/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Using a strongly polar cyanopropyl capillary column we have investigated the gas chromatography (GC) separation behaviors of 24 octadecadienoic acid methyl ester (18:2ME) isomers compared against saturated methyl stearate (18:0ME) and arachidic acid methyl ester (20:0ME), and the dependency on the GC column temperature. The 24 isomers were obtained by performing cis-to trans-isomerization of six regioisomers: five of the 18:2ME isomers were prepared by the partial reduction of methyl α-linolenate and methyl γ-linolenate C18 trienoic acids with different double bond positions, whereas the sixth isomer, 18:2ME (c5, c9), was obtained from a raw constituent fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) sample extracted from Japanese yew seeds. There are no reference standards commercially available for 18:2ME isomers, and in elucidating the elution order of these isomers this study should help the future identification of cis- and trans-type of 18:2ME. We also report the identification method of cis- and trans-type of FAME using equivalent chain lengths and attempt the identification of cis- and trans-type of 18:2ME isomers from partially hydrogenated canola oil.
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17
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An experimental investigation into the solubility of Moringa oleifera oil in supercritical carbon dioxide. J FOOD ENG 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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18
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Assessment of ionic liquid stationary phases for the GC analysis of fatty acid methyl esters. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 406:4931-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-7919-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2013] [Revised: 05/08/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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19
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Characterisation of capillary ionic liquid columns for gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis of fatty acid methyl esters. Anal Chim Acta 2013; 803:166-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2013.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2013] [Revised: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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20
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Fast comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography method for fatty acid methyl ester separation and quantification using dual ionic liquid columns. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1312:118-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.08.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2013] [Revised: 08/26/2013] [Accepted: 08/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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21
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Comparison of GC stationary phases for the separation of fatty acid methyl esters in biodiesel fuels. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:6087-94. [PMID: 23728727 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7042-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Revised: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) content of biodiesel fuels has traditionally been determined using gas chromatography with a polar stationary phase. In this study, a direct comparison of the separation of FAMEs present in various biodiesel samples on three polar stationary phases and one moderately polar stationary phase (with comparable column dimensions) was performed. Retention on each column was based on solubility in and polarity of the phase. Quantitative metrics describing the resolution of important FAME pairs indicate high resolution on all polar columns, yet the best resolution, particularly of geometric isomers, is achieved on the cyanopropyl column. In addition, the separation of four C18 monounsaturated isomers was optimized and the elution order determined on each column. FAME composition of various biodiesel fuel types was determined on each column to illustrate (1) chemical differences in biodiesels produced from different feedstocks and (2) chemical similarities in biodiesels of the same feedstock type produced in different locations and harvest seasons.
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22
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Integrated multidimensional and comprehensive 2D GC analysis of fatty acid methyl esters. J Sep Sci 2013; 36:878-85. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201200923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2012] [Revised: 10/29/2012] [Accepted: 11/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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23
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Comparison of fatty acid analysis methods for assessing biorefinery applicability of wastewater cultivated microalgae. Talanta 2012; 97:103-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2012.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2012] [Revised: 03/31/2012] [Accepted: 04/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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24
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Improved Separation of Fame Isomers Using Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography. Application to Broccoli Samples. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-011-9330-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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25
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Retention indices in comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 401:2351-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5247-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Revised: 07/05/2011] [Accepted: 07/06/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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26
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Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with capillary flow modulation to separate FAME isomers. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:4952-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Revised: 12/01/2010] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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27
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Rapid microwave-assisted transesterification for the preparation of fatty acid methyl esters from the oil of yellow horn (Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge.). Eur Food Res Technol 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-009-1024-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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28
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Trigonal tricationic ionic liquids: a generation of gas chromatographic stationary phases. Anal Chem 2009; 81:160-73. [PMID: 19067539 DOI: 10.1021/ac8016949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Trigonal tricationic ionic liquids (ILs) are a new class of ILs that appear to be unique when used as gas chromatographic stationary phases. They consist of four core structures; (1) A = mesitylene core, (2) B = benzene core, (3) C = triethylamine core, and (4) D = tri(2-hexanamido)ethylamine core; to which three identical imidazolium or phosphonium cationic moieties were attached. These were coated on fused silica capillaries, and their gas chromatographic properties were evaluated. They were characterized using a linear solvation parameter model and a number of test mixtures. On the basis of the literature, it is known that both monocationic and dicationic ILs possess almost identical polarities, solvation characteristics, and chromatographic selectivities. However, some of the trigonal tricationic ILs were quite different. The different solvation parameters and higher apparent polarities appear to generate from the more rigid trigonal geometry of these ILs, as well as their ability to retain the positive charges in relatively close proximity to one another in some cases. Their unique selectivities, retention behaviors, and separation efficiencies were demonstrated using the Grob mixture, a flavor and fragrance test mixture, alcohols/alkanes test, and FAME isomer separations. Two ILs C1 (methylimidazolium substitution) and C4 (2-hydroxyethylimidazolium substitution) had higher apparent polarities than any know IL (mono, di, and tricationic ILs) or commercial stationary phases. The tri(2-hexanamido)ethylamine core IL series proved to be very interesting in that it not only showed the highest separation efficiency for all test mixtures, but it also is the first IL stationary phase (containing NTf(2)(-) anions) that eliminates peak tailing for alcohols and other H-bonding analytes. The thermal stabilities were investigated using three methods: thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) method, temperature programmed gas chromatographic method (TPGC), and isothermal gas chromatographic method. The D core series had a high working temperature range, exceptional selectivities, and higher separation efficiencies than comparable polarity commercial columns. It appears that this specific type of multifunctional ILs may have the most promising future as a new generation of gas chromatographic stationary phases.
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29
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Chapter 2 Basic Instrumentation for GC×GC. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/s0166-526x(09)05502-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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30
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Recent developments in the application of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1186:67-108. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 298] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2007] [Revised: 01/01/2008] [Accepted: 01/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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31
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Rapid identification of fatty acid methyl esters using a multidimensional gas chromatography–mass spectrometry database. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1177:159-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.10.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2007] [Revised: 10/01/2007] [Accepted: 10/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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32
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Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography for the separation of fatty acids in milk. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.200700004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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33
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Evaluation of the separation characteristics of application-specific (fatty acid methyl esters) open-tubular columns for gas chromatography. J Sep Sci 2007; 30:740-5. [PMID: 17461115 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200600453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The solvation parameter model is used to characterize the separation properties of the polar stationary phases EC-Wax and PAG with a poly(ethylene oxide) backbone (substituted with propylene oxide in the case of PAG) and the cyanopropyl-substituted polysilphenylene-siloxane stationary phase BPX90 at five equally spaced temperatures between 60 and 140 degrees C. The separation characteristics of these stationary phases are compared to four PEG and two poly(cyanopropylsiloxane) stationary phases (HP-20M, HP-Innowax, SolGel-Wax, DB-WAXetr, HP-88, and SP-2340) characterized in the same way. The database of system constants for these polar stationary phases is used to provide insight into the separation mechanism for fatty acid methyl esters and to determine selectivity differences that can be expected for generically similar stationary phase types. The discussion is not structured to indicate which stationary phase should be used for a particular separation but to provide a general framework to demonstrate the relationship between the retention mechanism and stationary phase chemistry.
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