Recombinant vector vaccine evolution

Contagious ecthyma in small ruminants: from etiology to vaccine challenges - a review

Orf virus (ORFV) is an epitheliotropic, double-stranded DNA pathogen belonging to the genus Parapoxvirus, and it is the causative agent of contagious ecthyma (CE) in small ruminants. It is an endemic disease on goat and sheep herds around the world. It is often a neglected disease, with impacts on herd health and productivity, while also being an occupational zoonosis. This review explores the causative agent of ovine ecthyma, its epidemiology, and clinical manifestations, with a particular emphasis on its interaction with the host's immune system and the development of ORFV vaccines. Like other members of the Poxviridae family, ORFV expresses numerous immunomodulatory genes, which complicate vaccination efforts and disease management. This review highlights the challenges posed by ORFV in achieving effective immunization and discusses potential vaccine strategies to overcome these obstacles.

Single Dose of Attenuated Vaccinia Viruses Expressing H5 Hemagglutinin Affords Rapid and Long-Term Protection Against Lethal Infection with Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A H5N1 Virus in Mice and Monkeys

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

In preparation for a potential pandemic caused by the H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus, pre-pandemic vaccines against several viral clades have been developed and stocked worldwide. Although these vaccines are well tolerated, their immunogenicity and cross-reactivity with viruses of different clades can be improved.

METHODS

To address this aspect, we generated recombinant influenza vaccines against H5-subtype viruses using two different strains of highly attenuated vaccinia virus (VACV) vectors.

RESULTS

rLC16m8-mcl2.2 hemagglutinin (HA) and rLC16m8-mcl2.3.4 HA consisted of a recombinant LC16m8 vector encoding the HA protein from clade 2.2 or clade 2.3.4 viruses (respectively); rDIs-mcl2.2 HA consisted of a recombinant DIs vector encoding the HA protein from clade 2.2. A single dose of rLC16m8-mcl2.2 HA showed rapid (1 week after vaccination) and long-term protection (20 months post-vaccination) in mice against the HPAI H5N1 virus. Moreover, cynomolgus macaques immunized with rLC16m8-mcl2.2 HA exhibited long-term protection when challenged with a heterologous clade of the HPAI H5N1 virus. Although the DIs strain is unable to grow in most mammalian cells, rDIs-mcl2.2 HA also showed rapid and long-lasting effects against HPAI H5N1 virus infection. Notably, the protective efficacy of rDIs-mcl2.2 HA was comparable to that of rLC16m8-mcl2.2 HA. Furthermore, these vaccines protected animals previously immunized with VACVs from a lethal challenge with the HPAI H5N1 virus.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that both rLC16m8-mcl2.2 HA and rDIs-mcl2.2 HA are effective in preventing HPAI H5N1 virus infection, and rDIs-mcl2.2 HA is a promising vaccine candidate against H5 HA-subtype viruses.

Evaluating Antigen- and Vector-Specific Immune Responses of a Recombinant Pichinde Virus-Based Vaccine Expressing the Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Nucleoprotein

BACKGROUND

Live viral vector-based vaccines are known to elicit strong immune responses, but their use can be limited by anti-vector immunity. Here, we analyzed the immunological responses of a live-attenuated recombinant Pichinde virus (PICV) vector platform (rP18tri).

METHODS

To evaluate anti-PICV immunity in the development of vaccine antigen-specific immune responses, we generated a rP18tri-based vaccine expressing the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) nucleoprotein (NP) and administered four doses of this rP18tri-NPLCMV vaccine to mice. Using MHC-I tetramers to detect PICV NP38-45 and LCMV NP396-404 epitope-specific CD8+ T cells, we monitored vector- and vaccine-antigen-specific immune responses after each vaccination dose.

RESULTS

LCMV NP396-404-specific effector and memory CD8+ T cells were detected after the first dose and peaked after the second dose, whereas PICV NP38-45-specific memory CD8+ T cells increased with each dose. PICV-binding IgG antibodies peaked after the second dose, while anti-PICV neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) remained low even after the fourth dose. Immunization with the rP18tri-NPLCMV vaccine significantly reduced LCMV viral titers in a chronic LCMV Clone 13 infection model, demonstrating the protective role of LCMV NP-specific T cells.

CONCLUSION

These findings provide important insights into the antigen- and vector-specific immunity of the rP18tri-NPLCMV vaccine and support the development of NP-based vaccines against arenavirus pathogens.

Combating Emerging Respiratory Viruses: Lessons and Future Antiviral Strategies

Emerging viral diseases, including seasonal illnesses and pandemics, pose significant global public health risks. Respiratory viruses, particularly coronaviruses and influenza viruses, are associated with high morbidity and mortality, imposing substantial socioeconomic burdens. This review focuses on the current landscape of respiratory viruses, particularly influenza and SARS-CoV-2, and their antiviral treatments. It also discusses the potential for pandemics and the development of new antiviral vaccines and therapies, drawing lessons from past outbreaks to inform future strategies for managing viral threats.

Scanning the Horizon for Environmental Applications of Genetically Modified Viruses Reveals Challenges for Their Environmental Risk Assessment

The release of novel genetically modified (GM) virus applications into the environment for agricultural, veterinary, and nature-conservation purposes poses a number of significant challenges for risk assessors and regulatory authorities. Continuous efforts to scan the horizon for emerging applications are needed to gain an overview of new GM virus applications. In addition, appropriate approaches for risk assessment and management have to be developed. These approaches need to address pertinent challenges, in particular with regard to the environmental release of GM virus applications with a high probability for transmission and spreading, including transboundary movements and a high potential to result in adverse environmental effects. However, the current preparedness at the EU and international level to assess such GM virus application is limited. This study addresses some of the challenges associated with the current situation, firstly, by conducting a horizon scan to identify emerging GM virus applications with relevance for the environment. Secondly, outstanding issues regarding the environmental risk assessment (ERA) of GM virus applications are identified based on an evaluation of case study examples. Specifically, the limited scientific information available for the ERA of some applications and the lack of detailed and appropriate guidance for ERA are discussed. Furthermore, considerations are provided for future work that is needed to establish adequate risk assessment and management approaches.

Comparison of heterologous prime-boost immunization strategies with DNA and recombinant vaccinia virus co-expressing GP3 and GP5 of European type porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in pigs

Vaccination is principally used to control and treat porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection. This study investigated immunogenicity and protective efficacy of heterologous prime-boost regimens in pigs, including recombinant DNA and vaccinia virus vectors coexpressing PRRSV European genotype (EU) isolate GP3 and GP5: group A, pVAX1-EU-GP3-GP5 prime and rddVTT-EU-GP3-GP5 boost; group B, rddVTT-EU-GP3-GP5 prime and pVAX1-EU-GP3-GP5 boost; group C, empty vector pVAX1; group D, E3L gene-deleted vaccinia virus E3L- VTT. Vaccine efficacy was tested in an EU-type PRRSV (Lelystad virus strain) challenge pig model based on evaluating PRRSV-specific antibody responses, neutralizing antibodies, cytokines, T lymphocyte proliferation, CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, clinical symptoms, viremia and tissue virus loads. Plasmid DNA was delivered as chitosan-DNA nanoparticles, and Quil A (Quillaja) was used to increase vaccine efficiency. All piglets were boosted 21 days post the initial inoculation (dpi) and then challenged 14 days later. At 14, 21, 28 and 35 dpi, groups A and B developed significantly higher PRRSV-specific antibody responses compared with control groups C and D. Two weeks after the boost, significant differences in neutralizing antibody and IFN-γ levels were observed between groups A, C, D and B. At 49 dpi, groups A and B had markedly increased peripheral blood CD3+CD4+ T cell levels. Following virus challenge, group A showed viremia, but organ virus loads were lower than those in other groups. Thus, a heterologous prime-boost vaccine regimen (rddVTT-EU-GP3-GP5 prime, pVAX1-EU-GP3-GP5 boost) can improve humoral- and cell-mediated immune responses to provide resistance to EU-type PRRSV infection in vivo.

Exigency of Plant-Based Vaccine against COVID-19 Emergence as Pandemic Preparedness

After two years since the declaration of COVID-19 as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO), more than six million deaths have occurred due to SARS-CoV-2, leading to an unprecedented disruption of the global economy. Fortunately, within a year, a wide range of vaccines, including pathogen-based inactivated and live-attenuated vaccines, replicating and non-replicating vector-based vaccines, nucleic acid (DNA and mRNA)-based vaccines, and protein-based subunit and virus-like particle (VLP)-based vaccines, have been developed to mitigate the severe impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. These vaccines have proven highly effective in reducing the severity of illness and preventing deaths. However, the availability and supply of COVID-19 vaccines have become an issue due to the prioritization of vaccine distribution in most countries. Additionally, as the virus continues to mutate and spread, questions have arisen regarding the effectiveness of vaccines against new strains of SARS-CoV-2 that can evade host immunity. The urgent need for booster doses to enhance immunity has been recognized. The scarcity of "safe and effective" vaccines has exacerbated global inequalities in terms of vaccine coverage. The development of COVID-19 vaccines has fallen short of the expectations set forth in 2020 and 2021. Furthermore, the equitable distribution of vaccines at the global and national levels remains a challenge, particularly in developing countries. In such circumstances, the exigency of plant virus-based vaccines has become apparent as a means to overcome supply shortages through fast manufacturing processes and to enable quick and convenient distribution to millions of people without the reliance on a cold chain system. Moreover, plant virus-based vaccines have demonstrated both safety and efficacy in eliciting robust cellular immunogenicity against COVID-19 pathogens. This review aims to shed light on the advantages and disadvantages of different types of vaccines developed against SARS-CoV-2 and provide an update on the current status of plant-based vaccines in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic.

Optimizing the delivery of self-disseminating vaccines in fluctuating wildlife populations

Zoonotic pathogens spread by wildlife continue to spill into human populations and threaten human lives. A potential way to reduce this threat is by vaccinating wildlife species that harbor pathogens that are infectious to humans. Unfortunately, even in cases where vaccines can be distributed en masse as edible baits, achieving levels of vaccine coverage sufficient for pathogen elimination is rare. Developing vaccines that self-disseminate may help solve this problem by magnifying the impact of limited direct vaccination. Although models exist that quantify how well these self-disseminating vaccines will work when introduced into temporally stable wildlife populations, how well they will perform when introduced into populations with pronounced seasonal population dynamics remains unknown. Here we develop and analyze mathematical models of fluctuating wildlife populations that allow us to study how reservoir ecology, vaccine design, and vaccine delivery interact to influence vaccine coverage and opportunities for pathogen elimination. Our results demonstrate that the timing of vaccine delivery can make or break the success of vaccination programs. As a general rule, the effectiveness of self-disseminating vaccines is optimized by introducing after the peak of seasonal reproduction when the number of susceptible animals is near its maximum.

Novel csuC-DNA nanovaccine based on chitosan candidate vaccine against infection with Acinetobacter baumannii

BACKGROUND

Generating vaccines is a promising and effective method for stopping the spread of Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii) infections that are becoming more and more drug-resistant (MDR). Developing a DNA vaccine and testing its efficacy and protective effects in BALB/c mice were the goals of this research.

METHODS

We examined the genomes of 35 different strains of A. baumannii using the Vaxign online program, and we selected outer membrane and secreted proteins as potential vaccine candidates. Next, the proteins' immunogenicity, antigenic features, physical and chemical characteristics, and B and MHCI/II cell epitope concentrations were assessed. The DNA vaccine was synthesized. Then, to generate CS-DNA nanoparticles, the DNA vaccine was e encapsulated by chitosan (CS) nanoparticles (NPs). BALB/c mice were used to assess the vaccine's immunogenicity and immunoprotective effectiveness.

RESULTS

CS-DNA NPs were nontoxic, positively charged (4.39 mV), and small (mean size of 285-350 nm) with ostensibly spherical shapes. It was possible to establish a continuously slow release profile and a high entrapment efficiency (78.12 %). CS-DNA vaccinated BALB/c mice elicited greater levels of csuC-specific IgG in plasma and IFN-γ in splenocyte lysate compared with non-encapsulated DNA vaccine. In addition, BALB/c mice immunized with CS-DNA nanovaccine showed decreased lung damage and bacterial loads in the lung and blood, as well as significant immunity (87.5 %) versus acute fatal intratracheal A. baumannii challenge.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, acute fatal intratracheal A. baumannii exposure was prevented by CS-DNA NPs that induced specific IgG antibodies, Th1 cellular immunity, and other protective mechanisms. Our findings show that this nanovaccine is a promising contender for stopping the spread of A. baumannii infection.

DEC-205 receptor targeted poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles containing Eucommia ulmoides polysaccharide enhances the immune response of foot-and-mouth disease vaccine in mice

Nanoparticles targeting the DEC-205 receptor were found to induce antigen-specific protective immune response. When the delivery system carries both antigens and immunomodulators, it can maximize the expected therapeutic effect of the drug and induce effective humoral and cellular immune responses to antigens.In this study, we encapsulated the Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. polysaccharides (EUPS) into PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) and conjugated it with anti-CD205 monoclonal Ab (MAb) to produce a DEC-205 receptor targeted PLGA nanoparticles (anti-DEC-205-EUPS-PLGA NPs). The physicochemical characteristics and adjuvant activity of the above NPs were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. In the in vitro setting, 200 μg·mL-1 anti-DEC-205-EUPS-PLGA could improve the proliferation of DCs and promote their antigen up-take activity. In the in vivo setting, anti-DEC-205-EUPS-PLGA NPs remarkably controlled the release of drug and antigen to induce sustained immune responses and up-regulated the levels of FMDV-specific IgG antibodies, promoted the cytotoxic activity of CTLs and NK cells, and improved the proliferation of splenocytes. Moreover, the anti-DEC-205-EUPS-PLGA NPs facilitated the maturation of DCs. The above data indicated that anti-DEC-205-EUPS-PLGA NPs employed as an targeted adjuvant induced the humoral and cellular immune activity by promoting the maturation of DCs. These findings may provide a new insight onto the development of vaccine adjuvants.

Aspects of Nanotechnology for COVID-19 Vaccine Development and Its Delivery Applications

Coronavirus, a causative agent of the common cold to a much more complicated disease such as "severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV-2), and Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)", is a member of the coronaviridae family and contains a positive-sense single-stranded RNA of 26-32 kilobase pairs. COVID-19 has shown very high mortality and morbidity and imparted a significantly impacted socioeconomic status. There are many variants of SARS-CoV-2 that have originated from the mutation of the genetic material of the original coronavirus. This has raised the demand for efficient treatment/therapy to manage newly emerged SARS-CoV-2 infections successfully. However, different types of vaccines have been developed and administered to patients but need more attention because COVID-19 is not under complete control. In this article, currently developed nanotechnology-based vaccines are explored, such as inactivated virus vaccines, mRNA-based vaccines, DNA-based vaccines, S-protein-based vaccines, virus-vectored vaccines, etc. One of the important aspects of vaccines is their administration inside the host body wherein nanotechnology can play a very crucial role. Currently, more than 26 nanotechnology-based COVID-19 vaccine candidates are in various phases of clinical trials. Nanotechnology is one of the growing fields in drug discovery and drug delivery that can also be used for the tackling of coronavirus. Nanotechnology can be used in various ways to design and develop tools and strategies for detection, diagnosis, and therapeutic and vaccine development to protect against COVID-19. The design of instruments for speedy, precise, and sensitive diagnosis, the fabrication of potent sanitizers, the delivery of extracellular antigenic components or mRNA-based vaccines into human tissues, and the administration of antiretroviral medicines into the organism are nanotechnology-based strategies for COVID-19 management. Herein, we discuss the application of nanotechnology in COVID-19 vaccine development and the challenges and opportunities in this approach.

The Advantage of Using Immunoinformatic Tools on Vaccine Design and Development for Coronavirus

After the outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 by the end of 2019, the vaccine development strategies became a worldwide priority. Furthermore, the appearances of novel SARS-CoV-2 variants challenge researchers to develop new pharmacological or preventive strategies. However, vaccines still represent an efficient way to control the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic worldwide. This review describes the importance of bioinformatic and immunoinformatic tools (in silico) for guide vaccine design. In silico strategies permit the identification of epitopes (immunogenic peptides) which could be used as potential vaccines, as well as nonacarriers such as: vector viral based vaccines, RNA-based vaccines and dendrimers through immunoinformatics. Currently, nucleic acid and protein sequential as well structural analyses through bioinformatic tools allow us to get immunogenic epitopes which can induce immune response alone or in complex with nanocarriers. One of the advantages of in silico techniques is that they facilitate the identification of epitopes, while accelerating the process and helping to economize some stages of the development of safe vaccines.

Recent Progress in Recombinant Influenza Vaccine Development Toward Heterosubtypic Immune Response

Flu, a viral infection caused by the influenza virus, is still a global public health concern with potential to cause seasonal epidemics and pandemics. Vaccination is considered the most effective protective strategy against the infection. However, given the high plasticity of the virus and the suboptimal immunogenicity of existing influenza vaccines, scientists are moving toward the development of universal vaccines. An important property of universal vaccines is their ability to induce heterosubtypic immunity, i.e., a wide immune response coverage toward different influenza subtypes. With the increasing number of studies and mounting evidence on the safety and efficacy of recombinant influenza vaccines (RIVs), they have been proposed as promising platforms for the development of universal vaccines. This review highlights the current progress and advances in the development of RIVs in the context of heterosubtypic immunity induction toward universal vaccine production. In particular, this review discussed existing knowledge on influenza and vaccine development, current hemagglutinin-based RIVs in the market and in the pipeline, other potential vaccine targets for RIVs (neuraminidase, matrix 1 and 2, nucleoprotein, polymerase acidic, and basic 1 and 2 antigens), and deantigenization process. This review also provided discussion points and future perspectives in looking at RIVs as potential universal vaccine candidates for influenza.

COVID-19 vaccine development based on recombinant viral and bacterial vector systems: combinatorial effect of adaptive and trained immunity

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus (SARS-CoV-2) infection, which causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has led to many cases and deaths worldwide. Therefore, a number of vaccine candidates have been developed to control the COVID-19 pandemic. Of these, to date, 21 vaccines have received emergency approval for human use in at least one country. However, the recent global emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants has compromised the efficacy of the currently available vaccines. To protect against these variants, the use of vaccines that modulate T cell-mediated immune responses or innate immune cell memory function, termed trained immunity, is needed. The major advantage of a vaccine that uses bacteria or viral systems for the delivery of COVID-19 antigens is the ability to induce both T cell-mediated and humoral immune responses. In addition, such vaccine systems can also exert off-target effects via the vector itself, mediated partly through trained immunity; compared to other vaccine platforms, suggesting that this approach can provide better protection against even vaccine escape variants. This review presents the current status of the development of COVID-19 vaccines based on recombinant viral and bacterial delivery systems. We also discuss the current status of the use of licensed live vaccines for other infections, including BCG, oral polio and MMR vaccines, to prevent COVID-19 infections.

Immunomodulatory Strategies for Parapoxvirus: Current Status and Future Approaches for the Development of Vaccines against Orf Virus Infection

Orf virus (ORFV), the prototype species of the parapoxvirus genus, is the causative agent of contagious ecthyma, an extremely devastating skin disease of sheep, goats, and humans that causes enormous economic losses in livestock production. ORFV is known for its ability to repeatedly infect both previously infected and vaccinated sheep due to several immunomodulatory genes encoded by the virus that temporarily suppress host immunity. Therefore, the development of novel, safe and effective vaccines against ORFV infection is an important priority. Although, the commercially licensed live-attenuated vaccines have provided partial protection against ORFV infections, the attenuated viruses have been associated with major safety concerns. In addition to safety issues, the persistent reinfection of vaccinated animals warrants the need to investigate several factors that may affect vaccine efficacy. Perhaps, the reason for the failure of the vaccine is due to the long-term adaptation of the virus in tissue culture. In recent years, the development of vaccines against ORFV infection has achieved great success due to technological advances in recombinant DNA technologies, which have opened a pathway for the development of vaccine candidates that elicit robust immunity. In this review, we present current knowledge on immune responses elicited by ORFV, with particular attention to the effects of the viral immunomodulators on the host immune system. We also discuss the implications of strain variation for the development of rational vaccines. Finally, the review will also aim to demonstrate future strategies for the development of safe and efficient vaccines against ORFV infections.

Neutralizing Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2, Anti-Ad5 Antibodies, and Reactogenicity in Response to Ad5-nCoV (CanSino Biologics) Vaccine in Individuals with and without Prior SARS-CoV-2

This is the first study outside of clinical trials (phase I–III) evaluating the ability of the Ad5-nCoV vaccine to generate neutralizing antibodies and the factors associated with optimal or suboptimal response. In a longitudinal assay, 346 people (117 with prior COVID-19 and 229 without prior COVID-19) vaccinated with Ad5-nCoV were recruited. The percentage of neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 (Surrogate Virus Neutralization Test) and antibodies against Ad5 (ADV-Ad5 IgG ELISA) were quantified pre and post-vaccination effects. The Ad5-nCoV vaccine induces higher neutralizing antibodies percentage in individuals with prior COVID-19 than those without prior COVID-19 (median [IQR]: 98% [97–98.1] vs. 72% [54–90], respectively; p < 0.0001). Furthermore, a natural infection (before vaccination) induces more neutralizing antibodies percentage than immunized individuals without prior COVID-19 (p < 0.01). No patient had vaccine-severe adverse effects. The age, antidepressant, and immunosuppressive treatments, reactogenicity, and history of COVID-19 are associated with impaired antibody production. The anti-Ad5 antibodies increased after 21 days of post-vaccination in all groups (p < 0.01). We recommend the application of a booster dose of Ad5-nCoV, especially for those individuals without previous COVID-19 infection. Finally, the induction of anti-Ad5 antibodies after vaccination should be considered if a booster with the same vaccine is planned.

COVID-19 vaccine platforms: Delivering on a promise?

The emergence of the novel SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 has brought into sharp focus the need for a vaccine to prevent this disease. Vaccines have saved millions of lives since their introduction to the public over 200 years ago. The potential for vaccination reached new heights in the mid-20th century with the development of technologies that expanded the ability to create novel vaccines. Since then, there has been continued technological advancement in vaccine development. The resulting platforms provide the promise for solutions for many infectious diseases, including those that have been with us for decades as well as those just now emerging. Each vaccine platform represents a different technology with a unique set of advantages and challenges, especially when considering manufacturing. Therefore, it is essential to understand each platform as a separate product and process with its specific quality considerations. This review outlines the relevant platforms for developing a vaccine for SARS-CoV-2 and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Latest updates on SARS-CoV-2 genomic characterization, drug, and vaccine development; a comprehensive bioinformatics review

Amid the COVID-19 outbreak, several bioinformatic analyses have been conducted on SARS-CoV-2 virus genome. Numerous studies rushed to fill the gap about this novel virus. Comparison with other related sequences, structural predictions of the produced proteins, determination of variations in amino acid residues and depiction of possible drug and vaccine targets have been the focus of scientific research from the beginning of this year. In addition to discussing the viral taxonomy, clinical features, life cycle, and genome organization, this review will focus on the recent updates in genome and viral proteins characterization and potential therapeutic and vaccine candidates developed so far. Comparative studies with related genomes and proteins provide understanding for the viral molecular mechanisms and suggest targets for therapeutics and vaccinology trials to stop the escalation of this new virus. This pandemic, with its resulting social and economic afflictions, will definitely have significant marks on our lives in the following years.

Advancements in protein nanoparticle vaccine platforms to combat infectious disease

Infectious diseases are a major threat to global human health, yet prophylactic treatment options can be limited, as safe and efficacious vaccines exist only for a fraction of all diseases. Notably, devastating diseases such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) currently do not have vaccine therapies. Conventional vaccine platforms, such as live attenuated vaccines and whole inactivated vaccines, can be difficult to manufacture, may cause severe side effects, and can potentially induce severe infection. Subunit vaccines carry far fewer safety concerns due to their inability to cause vaccine-based infections. The applicability of protein nanoparticles (NPs) as vaccine scaffolds is promising to prevent infectious diseases, and they have been explored for a number of viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic diseases. Many types of protein NPs exist, including self-assembling NPs, bacteriophage-derived NPs, plant virus-derived NPs, and human virus-based vectors, and these particular categories will be covered in this review. These vaccines can elicit strong humoral and cellular immune responses against specific pathogens, as well as provide protection against infection in a number of animal models. Furthermore, published clinical trials demonstrate the promise of applying these NP vaccine platforms, which include bacteriophage-derived NPs, in addition to multiple viral vectors that are currently used in the clinic. The continued investigations of protein NP vaccine platforms are critical to generate safer alternatives to current vaccines, advance vaccines for diseases that currently lack effective prophylactic therapies, and prepare for the rapid development of new vaccines against emerging infectious diseases. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures.

Interpretative immune targets and contemporary position for vaccine development against SARS-CoV-2: A systematic review

The year 2020 started with the emergence of novel coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes COVID-19 infection. Soon after the first evidence was reported in Wuhan, China, the World Health Organization declared global public health emergency and imminent need to understand the pathogenicity of the virus was required in limited time. Once the genome sequence of the virus was delineated, scientists across the world started working on the development of vaccines. Although, some laboratories have been using previously developed vaccine platforms from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS) and middle east respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus and apply them in COVID-19 vaccines due to genetic similarities between coronaviruses. We have conducted a literature review to assess the background and current status of COVID-19 vaccines. The worldwide implementation and strategies for COVID-19 vaccine development are summarized from studies reported in years 2015-2020. While discussing the vaccine candidates, we have also explained interpretative immune responses of SARS-CoV-2 infection. There are several vaccine candidates at preclinical and clinical stages; however, only 42 vaccines are under clinical trials. Therefore, more industry collaborations and financial supports to COVID-19 studies are needed for mass-scale vaccine development. To develop effective vaccine platforms against SARS-CoV-2, the genetic resemblance with other coronaviruses are being evaluated which may further promote fast-track trials on previously developed SARS-CoV vaccines.

Human lung-on-chips: Advanced systems for respiratory virus models and assessment of immune response

Respiratory viral infections are leading causes of death worldwide. A number of human respiratory viruses circulate in all age groups and adapt to person-to-person transmission. It is vital to understand how these viruses infect the host and how the host responds to prevent infection and onset of disease. Although animal models have been widely used to study disease states, incisive arguments related to poor prediction of patient responses have led to the development of microfluidic organ-on-chip models, which aim to recapitulate organ-level physiology. Over the past decade, human lung chips have been shown to mimic many aspects of the lung function and its complex microenvironment. In this review, we address immunological responses to viral infections and elaborate on human lung airway and alveolus chips reported to model respiratory viral infections and therapeutic interventions. Advances in the field will expedite the development of therapeutics and vaccines for human welfare.

Development of vaccine formulations: past, present, and future

The current situation, heavily influenced by the ongoing pandemic, puts vaccines back into the spotlight. However, the conventional and traditional vaccines present disadvantages, particularly related to immunogenicity, stability, and storage of the final product. Often, such products require the maintenance of a “cold chain,” impacting the costs, the availability, and the distribution of vaccines. Here, after a recall of the mode of action of vaccines and the types of vaccines currently available, we analyze the past, present, and future of vaccine formulation. The past focuses on conventional formulations, the present discusses the use of nanoparticles for vaccine delivery and as adjuvants, while the future presents microneedle patches as alternative formulation and administration route. Finally, we compare the advantages and disadvantages of injectable solutions, nanovaccines, and microneedles in terms of efficacy, stability, and patient-friendly design.

Different approaches to vaccine formulation development, the conventional vaccine formulations from the past, the current development of lipid nanoparticles as vaccines, and the near future microneedles formulations are discussed in this review. 

SARS-CoV-2: An Update on Genomics, Risk Assessment, Potential Therapeutics and Vaccine Development

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a great threat to public health, being a causative pathogen of a deadly coronavirus disease (COVID-19). It has spread to more than 200 countries and infected millions of individuals globally. Although SARS-CoV-2 has structural/genomic similarities with the previously reported SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, the specific mutations in its genome make it a novel virus. Available therapeutic strategies failed to control this virus. Despite strict standard operating procedures (SOPs), SARS-CoV-2 has spread globally and it is mutating gradually as well. Diligent efforts, special care, and awareness are needed to reduce transmission among susceptible masses particularly elder people, children, and health care workers. In this review, we highlighted the basic genome organization and structure of SARS-CoV-2. Its transmission dynamics, symptoms, and associated risk factors are discussed. This review also presents the latest mutations identified in its genome, the potential therapeutic options being used, and a brief explanation of vaccine development efforts against COVID-19. The effort will not only help readers to understand the deadly SARS-CoV-2 virus but also provide updated information to researchers for their research work.

Directed attenuation to enhance vaccine immunity

Many viral infections can be prevented by immunizing with live, attenuated vaccines. Early methods of attenuation were hit-and-miss, now much improved by genetic engineering. However, even current methods operate on the principle of genetic harm, reducing the virus’s ability to grow. Reduced viral growth has the undesired side-effect of reducing the host immune response below that of infection with wild-type. Might some methods of attenuation instead lead to an increased immune response? We use mathematical models of the dynamics of virus with innate and adaptive immunity to explore the tradeoff between attenuation of virus pathology and immunity. We find that modification of some virus immune-evasion pathways can indeed reduce pathology yet enhance immunity. Thus, attenuated vaccines can, in principle, be directed to be safe yet create better immunity than is elicited by the wild-type virus.

Live attenuated virus vaccines are among the most effective interventions to combat viral infections. Historically, the mechanism of attenuation has involved genetically reducing the viral growth rate, often achieved by adapting the virus to grow in a novel condition. More recent attenuation methods use genetic engineering but also are thought to impair viral growth rate. These classical attenuations typically result in a tradeoff whereby attenuation depresses the within-host viral load and pathology (which is beneficial to vaccine design), but reduces immunity (which is not beneficial). We use models to explore ways of directing the attenuation of a virus to avoid this tradeoff. We show that directed attenuation by interfering with (some) viral immune-evasion pathways can yield a mild infection but elicit higher levels of immunity than of the wild-type virus.

Suppressing evolution in genetically engineered systems through repeated supplementation

Genetically engineered organisms are prone to evolve in response to the engineering. This evolution is often undesirable and can negatively affect the purpose of the engineering. Methods that maintain the stability of engineered genomes are therefore critical to the successful design and use of genetically engineered organisms. One potential method to limit unwanted evolution is by taking advantage of the ability of gene flow to counter local adaption, a process of supplementation. Here, we investigate the feasibility of supplementation as a mechanism to offset the evolutionary degradation of a transgene in three model systems: a bioreactor, a gene drive, and a transmissible vaccine. In each model, continual introduction from a stock is used to balance mutation and selection against the transgene. Each system has its unique features. The bioreactor system is especially tractable and has a simple answer: The level of supplementation required to maintain the transgene at a frequency p ^ is approximatelyp ^ s , where s is the selective disadvantage of the transgene. Supplementation is also feasible in the transmissible vaccine case but is probably not practical to prevent the evolution of resistance against a gene drive. We note, however, that the continual replacement of even a small fraction of a large population can be challenging, limiting the usefulness of supplementation as a means of controlling unwanted evolution.

Application of Nanotechnology in the COVID-19 Pandemic

COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection, has been prevalent worldwide for almost a year. In early 2000, there was an outbreak of SARS-CoV, and in early 2010, a similar dissemination of infection by MERS-CoV occurred. However, no clear explanation for the spread of SARS-CoV-2 and a massive increase in the number of infections has yet been proposed. The best solution to overcome this pandemic is the development of suitable and effective vaccines and therapeutics. Fortunately, for SARS-CoV-2, the genome sequence and protein structure have been published in a short period, making research and development for prevention and treatment relatively easy. In addition, intranasal drug delivery has proven to be an effective method of administration for treating viral lung diseases. In recent years, nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems have been applied to intranasal drug delivery to overcome various limitations that occur during mucosal administration, and advances have been made to the stage where effective drug delivery is possible. This review describes the accumulated knowledge of the previous SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infections and aims to help understand the newly emerged SARS-CoV-2 infection. Furthermore, it elucidates the achievements in developing COVID-19 vaccines and therapeutics to date through existing approaches. Finally, the applicable nanotechnology approach is described in detail, and vaccines and therapeutic drugs developed based on nanomedicine, which are currently undergoing clinical trials, have presented the potential to become innovative alternatives for overcoming COVID-19.

Designing transmissible viral vaccines for evolutionary robustness and maximum efficiency

The danger posed by emerging infectious diseases necessitates the development of new tools that can mitigate the risk of animal pathogens spilling over into the human population. One promising approach is the development of recombinant viral vaccines that are transmissible, and thus capable of self-dissemination through hard to reach populations of wild animals. Indeed, mathematical models demonstrate that transmissible vaccines can greatly reduce the effort required to control the spread of zoonotic pathogens in their animal reservoirs, thereby limiting the chances of human infection. A key challenge facing these new vaccines, however, is the inevitability of evolutionary change resulting from their ability to self-replicate and generate extended chains of transmission. Further, carrying immunogenic transgenes is often costly, in terms of metabolic burden, increased competition with the pathogen, or due to unintended interactions with the viral host regulatory network. As a result, natural selection is expected to favor vaccine strains that down-regulate or delete these transgenes resulting in increased rates of transmission and reduced efficacy against the target pathogen. In addition, efficacy and evolutionary stability will often be at odds; as when longer, more efficacious antigens experience faster rates of evolutionary decay. Here, we ask how such trade-offs influence the overall performance of transmissible vaccines. We find that evolutionary instability can substantially reduce performance, even for vaccine candidates with the ideal combination of efficacy and transmission. However, we find that, at least in some cases, vaccine stability and overall performance can be improved by the inclusion of a second, redundant antigen. Overall, our results suggest that the successful application of recombinant transmissible vaccines will require consideration of evolutionary dynamics and epistatic effects, as well as basic measurements of epidemiological features.

A Possible Path towards Rapid Development of Live-Attenuated SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines: Plunging into the Natural Pool

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic spreading around the world, causing massive distress to the world’s economy and affecting healthcare systems worldwide. Although some exposed individuals have no symptoms and most symptomatic infections are not severe, COVID-19 cases span a wide spectrum, ranging from mild to critical and sometimes resulting in life-threatening complications, such as pneumonia, severe respiratory distress and cardiac problems. Currently, there is no curative drug for COVID-19 and vaccines are still under development. We are presenting here a strategy for the fast development of natural live-attenuated SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Our proposed approach is based on screening for, identifying, analyzing and selecting naturally attenuated yet highly immunogenic SARS-CoV-2 strains, which may lead to a shorter cycle of vaccine development, as well as higher vaccine effectiveness.

Vaccination strategies to combat novel corona virus SARS-CoV-2

The 2019-novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is caused by SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted from human to human has recently reported in China. Now COVID-19 has been spread all over the world and declared epidemics by WHO. It has caused a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. The elderly and people with underlying diseases are susceptible to infection and prone to serious outcomes, which may be associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and cytokine storm. Due to the rapid increase of SARS-CoV-2 infections and unavailability of antiviral therapeutic agents, developing an effective SAR-CoV-2 vaccine is urgently required. SARS-CoV-2 which is genetically similar to SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is an enveloped, single and positive-stranded RNA virus with a genome comprising 29,891 nucleotides, which encode the 12 putative open reading frames responsible for the synthesis of viral structural and nonstructural proteins which are very similar to SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV proteins. In this review we have summarized various vaccine candidates i.e., nucleotide, subunit and vector based as well as attenuated and inactivated forms, which have already been demonstrated their prophylactic efficacy against MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV, so these candidates could be used as a potential tool for the development of a safe and effective vaccine against SARS-CoV-2.

On the stability of sequences inserted into viral genomes

Viruses are widely used as vectors for heterologous gene expression in cultured cells or natural hosts, and therefore a large number of viruses with exogenous sequences inserted into their genomes have been engineered. Many of these engineered viruses are viable and express heterologous proteins at high levels, but the inserted sequences often prove to be unstable over time and are rapidly lost, limiting heterologous protein expression. Although virologists are aware that inserted sequences can be unstable, processes leading to insert instability are rarely considered from an evolutionary perspective. Here, we review experimental work on the stability of inserted sequences over a broad range of viruses, and we present some theoretical considerations concerning insert stability. Different virus genome organizations strongly impact insert stability, and factors such as the position of insertion can have a strong effect. In addition, we argue that insert stability not only depends on the characteristics of a particular genome, but that it will also depend on the host environment and the demography of a virus population. The interplay between all factors affecting stability is complex, which makes it challenging to develop a general model to predict the stability of genomic insertions. We highlight key questions and future directions, finding that insert stability is a surprisingly complex problem and that there is need for mechanism-based, predictive models. Combining theoretical models with experimental tests for stability under varying conditions can lead to improved engineering of viral modified genomes, which is a valuable tool for understanding genome evolution as well as for biotechnological applications, such as gene therapy.