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Kang R, Wang L, Sanders SS, Zuo K, Hayden MR, Raymond LA. Altered Regulation of Striatal Neuronal N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Trafficking by Palmitoylation in Huntington Disease Mouse Model. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2019; 11:3. [PMID: 30846936 PMCID: PMC6393405 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2019.00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) play a critical role in synaptic signaling, and alterations in the synaptic/extrasynaptic NMDAR balance affect neuronal survival. Studies have shown enhanced extrasynaptic GluN2B-type NMDAR (2B-NMDAR) activity in striatal neurons in the YAC128 mouse model of Huntington disease (HD), resulting in increased cell death pathway activation contributing to striatal vulnerability to degeneration. However, the mechanism(s) of altered GluN2B trafficking remains unclear. Previous work shows that GluN2B palmitoylation on two C-terminal cysteine clusters regulates 2B-NMDAR trafficking to the surface membrane and synapses in cortical neurons. Notably, two palmitoyl acyltransferases (PATs), zDHHC17 and zDHHC13, also called huntingtin-interacting protein 14 (HIP14) and HIP14-like (HIP14L), directly interact with the huntingtin protein (Htt), and mutant Htt disrupts this interaction. Here, we investigated whether GluN2B palmitoylation is involved in enhanced extrasynaptic surface expression of 2B-NMDARs in YAC128 striatal neurons and whether this process is regulated by HIP14 or HIP14L. We found reduced GluN2B palmitoylation in YAC128 striatum, specifically on cysteine cluster II. Consistent with that finding, the palmitoylation-deficient GluN2B Cysteine cluster II mutant exhibited enhanced, extrasynaptic surface expression in striatal neurons from wild-type mice, mimicking increased extrasynaptic 2B-NMDAR observed in YAC128 cultures. We also found that HIP14L palmitoylated GluN2B cysteine cluster II. Moreover, GluN2B palmitoylation levels were reduced in striatal tissue from HIP14L-deficient mice, and siRNA-mediated HIP14L knockdown in cultured neurons enhanced striatal neuronal GluN2B surface expression and susceptibility to NMDA toxicity. Thus, altered regulation of GluN2B palmitoylation levels by the huntingtin-associated PAT HIP14L may contribute to the cell death-signaling pathways underlying HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rujun Kang
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Research Centre and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Liang Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Research Centre and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Shaun S Sanders
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Child and Family Research Institute, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kurt Zuo
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Research Centre and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Michael R Hayden
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Child and Family Research Institute, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Lynn A Raymond
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Research Centre and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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De I, Sadhukhan S. Emerging Roles of DHHC-mediated Protein S-palmitoylation in Physiological and Pathophysiological Context. Eur J Cell Biol 2018; 97:319-338. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2018.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
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Sanders SS, Parsons MP, Mui KKN, Southwell AL, Franciosi S, Cheung D, Waltl S, Raymond LA, Hayden MR. Sudden death due to paralysis and synaptic and behavioral deficits when Hip14/Zdhhc17 is deleted in adult mice. BMC Biol 2016; 14:108. [PMID: 27927242 PMCID: PMC5142322 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-016-0333-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Palmitoylation, the addition of palmitate to proteins by palmitoyl acyltransferases (PATs), is an important regulator of synaptic protein localization and function. Many palmitoylated proteins and PATs have been implicated in neuropsychiatric diseases, including Huntington disease, schizophrenia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer disease, and X-linked intellectual disability. HIP14/DHHC17 is the most conserved PAT that palmitoylates many synaptic proteins. Hip14 hypomorphic mice have behavioral and synaptic deficits. However, the phenotype is developmental; thus, a model of post-developmental loss of Hip14 was generated to examine the role of HIP14 in synaptic function in the adult. RESULTS Ten weeks after Hip14 deletion (iHip14 Δ/Δ ), mice die suddenly from rapidly progressive paralysis. Prior to death the mice exhibit motor deficits, increased escape response during tests of anxiety, anhedonia, a symptom indicative of depressive-like behavior, and striatal synaptic deficits, including reduced probability of transmitter release and increased amplitude but decreased frequency of spontaneous post-synaptic currents. The mice also have increased brain weight due to microgliosis and astrogliosis in the cortex. CONCLUSIONS Behavioral changes and electrophysiological measures suggest striatal dysfunction in iHip14 Δ/Δ mice, and increased cortical volume due to astrogliosis and microgliosis suggests a novel role for HIP14 in glia. These data suggest that HIP14 is essential for maintenance of life and neuronal integrity in the adult mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun S Sanders
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Matthew P Parsons
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Research Centre and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, UBC, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Present address: Division of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University, Newfoundland and Labrador, A1B 3V6, Canada
| | - Katherine K N Mui
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Amber L Southwell
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Sonia Franciosi
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Daphne Cheung
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Sabine Waltl
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Lynn A Raymond
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Research Centre and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, UBC, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Michael R Hayden
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4H4, Canada.
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Shi W, Wang F, Gao M, Yang Y, Du Z, Wang C, Yao Y, He K, Chen X, Hao A. ZDHHC17 promotes axon outgrowth by regulating TrkA-tubulin complex formation. Mol Cell Neurosci 2015; 68:194-202. [PMID: 26232532 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2015.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Correct axonal growth during nervous system development is critical for synaptic transduction and nervous system function. Proper axon outgrowth relies on a suitable growing environment and the expression of a series of endogenous neuronal factors. However, the mechanisms of these neuronal proteins involved in neuronal development remain unknown. ZDHHC17 is a member of the DHHC (Asp-His-His-Cys)-containing family, a family of highly homologous proteins. Here, we show that loss of function of ZDHHC17 in zebrafish leads to motor dysfunction in 3-day post-fertilization (dpf) larvae. We performed immunolabeling analysis to reveal that mobility dysfunction was due to a significant defect in the axonal outgrowth of spinal motor neurons (SMNs) without affecting neuron generation. In addition, we found a similar phenotype in zdhhc17 siRNA-treated neural stem cells (NSCs) and PC12 cells. Inhibition of zdhhc17 limited neurite outgrowth and branching in both NSCs and PC12. Furthermore, we discovered that the level of phosphorylation of extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2, a major downstream effector of tyrosine kinase (TrkA), was largely upregulated in ZDHHC17 overexpressing PC12 cells by a mechanism independent on its palmitoyltransferase (PAT) activity. Specifically, ZDHHC17 is necessary for proper TrkA-tubulin module formation in PC12 cells. These results strongly indicate that ZDHHC17 is essential for correct axon outgrowth in vivo and in vitro. Our findings identify ZDHHC17 as an important upstream factor of ERK1/2 to regulate the interaction between TrkA and tubulin during neuronal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Shi
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Department of Histology and Embryology, Shandong University School of Medicine, No. 44, Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, Shandong 250012, PR China
| | - Fen Wang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Department of Histology and Embryology, Shandong University School of Medicine, No. 44, Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, Shandong 250012, PR China
| | - Ming Gao
- Reproductive Medical Center of Shandong University, Shandong University School of Medicine, No. 44, Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, Shandong 250012, PR China
| | - Yang Yang
- Infertility Center, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University School of Medicine, No. 44, Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, Shandong 250012, PR China
| | - Zhaoxia Du
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Department of Histology and Embryology, Shandong University School of Medicine, No. 44, Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, Shandong 250012, PR China
| | - Chen Wang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Department of Histology and Embryology, Shandong University School of Medicine, No. 44, Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, Shandong 250012, PR China
| | - Yao Yao
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Department of Histology and Embryology, Shandong University School of Medicine, No. 44, Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, Shandong 250012, PR China
| | - Kun He
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Department of Histology and Embryology, Shandong University School of Medicine, No. 44, Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, Shandong 250012, PR China
| | - Xueran Chen
- Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, PR China.
| | - Aijun Hao
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Experimental Teratology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Department of Histology and Embryology, Shandong University School of Medicine, No. 44, Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, Shandong 250012, PR China.
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de Baaij JHF, Hoenderop JGJ, Bindels RJM. Magnesium in man: implications for health and disease. Physiol Rev 2015; 95:1-46. [PMID: 25540137 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00012.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 862] [Impact Index Per Article: 95.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Magnesium (Mg(2+)) is an essential ion to the human body, playing an instrumental role in supporting and sustaining health and life. As the second most abundant intracellular cation after potassium, it is involved in over 600 enzymatic reactions including energy metabolism and protein synthesis. Although Mg(2+) availability has been proven to be disturbed during several clinical situations, serum Mg(2+) values are not generally determined in patients. This review aims to provide an overview of the function of Mg(2+) in human health and disease. In short, Mg(2+) plays an important physiological role particularly in the brain, heart, and skeletal muscles. Moreover, Mg(2+) supplementation has been shown to be beneficial in treatment of, among others, preeclampsia, migraine, depression, coronary artery disease, and asthma. Over the last decade, several hereditary forms of hypomagnesemia have been deciphered, including mutations in transient receptor potential melastatin type 6 (TRPM6), claudin 16, and cyclin M2 (CNNM2). Recently, mutations in Mg(2+) transporter 1 (MagT1) were linked to T-cell deficiency underlining the important role of Mg(2+) in cell viability. Moreover, hypomagnesemia can be the consequence of the use of certain types of drugs, such as diuretics, epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors, calcineurin inhibitors, and proton pump inhibitors. This review provides an extensive and comprehensive overview of Mg(2+) research over the last few decades, focusing on the regulation of Mg(2+) homeostasis in the intestine, kidney, and bone and disturbances which may result in hypomagnesemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen H F de Baaij
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Joost G J Hoenderop
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - René J M Bindels
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Watkin EE, Arbez N, Waldron-Roby E, O'Meally R, Ratovitski T, Cole RN, Ross CA. Phosphorylation of mutant huntingtin at serine 116 modulates neuronal toxicity. PLoS One 2014; 9:e88284. [PMID: 24505464 PMCID: PMC3914950 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphorylation has been shown to have a significant impact on expanded huntingtin-mediated cellular toxicity. Several phosphorylation sites have been identified on the huntingtin (Htt) protein. To find new potential therapeutic targets for Huntington's Disease (HD), we used mass spectrometry to identify novel phosphorylation sites on N-terminal Htt, expressed in HEK293 cells. Using site-directed mutagenesis we introduced alterations of phosphorylation sites in a N586 Htt construct containing 82 polyglutamine repeats. The effects of these alterations on expanded Htt toxicity were evaluated in primary neurons using a nuclear condensation assay and a direct time-lapse imaging of neuronal death. As a result of these studies, we identified several novel phosphorylation sites, validated several known sites, and discovered one phospho-null alteration, S116A, that had a protective effect against expanded polyglutamine-mediated cellular toxicity. The results suggest that S116 is a potential therapeutic target, and indicate that our screening method is useful for identifying candidate phosphorylation sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin E. Watkin
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Nicolas Arbez
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Elaine Waldron-Roby
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Robert O'Meally
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Facility, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Tamara Ratovitski
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Robert N. Cole
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Facility, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Christopher A. Ross
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Departments of Neurology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience and Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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Estrada-Sánchez AM, Barton SJ, Burroughs CL, Doyle AR, Rebec GV. Dysregulated striatal neuronal processing and impaired motor behavior in mice lacking huntingtin interacting protein 14 (HIP14). PLoS One 2013; 8:e84537. [PMID: 24376823 PMCID: PMC3871627 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Palmitoyl acyl transferases (PATs) play a critical role in protein trafficking and function. Huntingtin interacting protein 14 (HIP14) is a PAT that acts on proteins associated with neuronal transmission, suggesting that deficient protein palmitoylation by HIP14, which occurs in the YAC128 model of Huntington's disease (HD), might have deleterious effects on neurobehavioral processing. HIP14 knockout mice show biochemical and neuropathological changes in the striatum, a forebrain region affected by HD that guides behavioral choice and motor flexibility. Thus, we evaluated the performance of these mice in two tests of motor ability: nest-building and plus maze turning behavior. Relative to wild-type controls, HIP14 knockout mice show impaired nest building and decreased turning in the plus maze. When we recorded the activity of striatal neurons during plus-maze performance, we found faster firing rates and dysregulated spike bursting in HIP14 knockouts compared to wild-type. There was also less correlated firing between simultaneously recorded neuronal pairs in the HIP14 knockouts. Overall, our results indicate that HIP14 is critically involved in behavioral modulation of striatal processing. In the absence of HIP14, striatal neurons become dysfunctional, leading to impaired motor behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana María Estrada-Sánchez
- Program in Neuroscience and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Scott J. Barton
- Program in Neuroscience and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Courtney L. Burroughs
- Program in Neuroscience and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Amanda R. Doyle
- Program in Neuroscience and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - George V. Rebec
- Program in Neuroscience and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
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Estrada-Sánchez AM, Barton SJ, Rebec GV. Altered Neuronal Dynamics in the Striatum on the Behavior of Huntingtin Interacting Protein 14 (HIP14) Knockout Mice. Brain Sci 2013; 3:1588-96. [PMID: 24961622 PMCID: PMC4061888 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci3041588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Revised: 11/01/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington’s disease (HD), a neurodegenerative disorder caused by an expanded CAG repeat in the huntingtin gene, impairs information processing in the striatum, which, as part of the basal ganglia, modulates motor output. Growing evidence suggests that huntingtin interacting protein 14 (HIP14) contributes to HD neuropathology. Here, we recorded local field potentials (LFPs) in the striatum as HIP14 knockout mice and wild-type controls freely navigated a plus-shaped maze. Upon entering the choice point of the maze, HIP14 knockouts tend to continue in a straight line, turning left or right significantly less often than wild-types, a sign of motor inflexibility that also occurs in HD mice. Striatal LFP activity anticipates this difference. In wild-types, the power spectral density pattern associated with entry into the choice point differs significantly from the pattern immediately before entry, especially at low frequencies (≤13 Hz), whereas HIP14 knockouts show no change in LFP activity as they enter the choice point. The lack of change in striatal activity may explain the turning deficit in the plus maze. Our results suggest that HIP14 plays a critical role in the aberrant behavioral modulation of striatal neuronal activity underlying motor inflexibility, including the motor signs of HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana María Estrada-Sánchez
- Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA; E-Mails: (A.M.E.-S.); (S.J.B.)
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Scott J. Barton
- Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA; E-Mails: (A.M.E.-S.); (S.J.B.)
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - George V. Rebec
- Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA; E-Mails: (A.M.E.-S.); (S.J.B.)
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-812-855-4832; Fax: +1-812-855-4520
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Abstract
Protein palmitoylation describes the post-translational fatty acyl thioesterification of cellular cysteine residues and is critical for the localization, trafficking, and compartmentalization of a large number of membrane proteins. This labile thioester modification facilitates a dynamic acylation cycle that directionally traffics key signaling complexes, receptors, and channels to select membrane compartments. Chemical enrichment and advanced mass spectrometry-based proteomics methods have highlighted a pervasive role for palmitoylation across all eukaryotes, including animals, plants, and parasites. Emerging chemical tools promise to open new avenues to study the enzymes, substrates, and dynamics of this distinct post-translational modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher T.M.B. Tom
- Program in Chemical Biology and Department
of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930
N. University Avenue, Ann
Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Brent R. Martin
- Program in Chemical Biology and Department
of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930
N. University Avenue, Ann
Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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