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Wilde S, Johnson AF, LaRock CN. Playing With Fire: Proinflammatory Virulence Mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:704099. [PMID: 34295841 PMCID: PMC8290871 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.704099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus is an obligate human pathogen that is a major cause of infectious morbidity and mortality. It has a natural tropism for the oropharynx and skin, where it causes infections with excessive inflammation due to its expression of proinflammatory toxins and other virulence factors. Inflammation directly contributes to the severity of invasive infections, toxic shock syndrome, and the induction of severe post-infection autoimmune disease caused by autoreactive antibodies. This review discusses what is known about how the virulence factors of Group A Streptococcus induce inflammation and how this inflammation can promote disease. Understanding of streptococcal pathogenesis and the role of hyper-immune activation during infection may provide new therapeutic targets to treat the often-fatal outcome of severe disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyra Wilde
- Microbiology and Molecular Genetics Program, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Anders F Johnson
- Microbiology and Molecular Genetics Program, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Christopher N LaRock
- Microbiology and Molecular Genetics Program, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, and Antibiotic Resistance Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
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2
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Grayson AK, Hearnden V, Bolt R, Jebreel A, Colley HE, Murdoch C. Use of a Rho kinase inhibitor to increase human tonsil keratinocyte longevity for three-dimensional, tissue engineered tonsil epithelium equivalents. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2017; 12:e1636-e1646. [PMID: 29048773 DOI: 10.1002/term.2590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The generation of tissue-engineered epithelial models is often hampered by the limited proliferative capacity of primary epithelial cells. This study aimed to isolate normal tonsillar keratinocytes (NTK) from human tonsils, increase the lifespan of these cells using the Rho kinase inhibitor Y-27632 and to develop tissue-engineered equivalents of healthy and infected tonsil epithelium. The proliferation rate of isolated NTK and expression of c-MYC and p16INK4A were measured in the absence or presence of the inhibitor. Y-27632-treated NTK were used to generate tissue-engineered tonsil epithelium equivalents using de-epidermised dermis that were then incubated with Streptococcus pyogenes to model bacterial tonsillitis, and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was measured by cytokine array and ELISA. NTK cultured in the absence of Y-27632 rapidly senesced whereas cells cultured in the presence of this inhibitor proliferated for over 30 population doublings without changing their phenotype. Y-27632-treated NTK produced a multi-layered differentiated epithelium that histologically resembled normal tonsillar surface epithelium and responded to S. pyogenes infection by increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including CXCL5 and IL-6. NTK can be isolated and successfully cultured in vitro with Y-27632 leading to a markedly prolonged lifespan without any deleterious consequences to cell morphology. This functional tissue-engineered equivalent of tonsil epithelium will provide a valuable tool for studying tonsil biology and host-pathogen interactions in a more physiologically relevant manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy K Grayson
- School of Clinical Dentistry, Claremont Crescent, University of Sheffield, UK
| | - Vanessa Hearnden
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, UK
| | - Robert Bolt
- School of Clinical Dentistry, Claremont Crescent, University of Sheffield, UK
| | - Ala Jebreel
- Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield, UK
| | - Helen E Colley
- School of Clinical Dentistry, Claremont Crescent, University of Sheffield, UK
| | - Craig Murdoch
- School of Clinical Dentistry, Claremont Crescent, University of Sheffield, UK
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3
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Turner CE, Bedford L, Brown NM, Judge K, Török ME, Parkhill J, Peacock SJ. Community outbreaks of group A Streptococcus revealed by genome sequencing. Sci Rep 2017; 7:8554. [PMID: 28819111 PMCID: PMC5561225 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-08914-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The frequent occurrence of disease outbreaks in humans caused by group A Streptococcus (GAS) is an on-going public health threat. Conventional bacterial typing methods lack the discriminatory power to confidently confirm or refute outbreaks in hospital and community settings. Microbial whole genome sequencing (WGS) provides a potential solution to this, but, there has been limited population-based surveillance with accompanying sequence data. We performed retrospective genomic surveillance of 93 clinical GAS isolates from individuals in a defined geographic region. Detailed clinical information was obtained for closely related clusters of isolates. Genomic sequence data was contextualised through comparison with international data. We identified 18 different emm genotypes within our bacterial population, and revealed both highly diverse and closely related isolates. This high level of diversity was maintained even in the context of international sequence data. We also identified two emm1 clusters, and one emm3 cluster, of closely-related isolates that differed only by 1 to 4 single nucleotide polymorphisms. Analysis of clinical information identified no healthcare associated contact between patients, indicating cryptic community transmission. Our findings suggest that genomic surveillance of GAS would increase detection of transmission and highlight opportunities for intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire E Turner
- Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom. .,Molecular Biology & Biotechnology and The Florey Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.
| | - Luke Bedford
- Clinical Microbiology and Public Health Laboratory, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas M Brown
- Clinical Microbiology and Public Health Laboratory, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Kim Judge
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - M Estée Török
- Clinical Microbiology and Public Health Laboratory, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Sharon J Peacock
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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Afshar B, Turner CE, Lamagni TL, Smith KC, Al-Shahib A, Underwood A, Holden MTG, Efstratiou A, Sriskandan S. Enhanced nasopharyngeal infection and shedding associated with an epidemic lineage of emm3 group A Streptococcus. Virulence 2017; 8:1390-1400. [PMID: 28459299 PMCID: PMC5711448 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2017.1325070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: A group A Streptococcus (GAS) lineage of genotype emm3, sequence type 15 (ST15) was associated with a 6 month upsurge in invasive GAS disease in the UK. The epidemic lineage (Lineage C) had lost 2 typical emm3 prophages, Φ315.1 and Φ315.2 associated with the superantigen ssa, but gained a different prophage (ΦUK-M3.1) associated with a different superantigen, speC and a DNAse spd1. Methods and Results: The presence of speC and spd1 in Lineage C ST15 strains enhanced both in vitro mitogenic and DNase activities over non-Lineage C ST15 strains. Invasive disease models in Galleria mellonella and SPEC-sensitive transgenic mice, revealed no difference in overall invasiveness of Lineage C ST15 strains compared with non-Lineage C ST15 strains, consistent with clinical and epidemiological analysis. Lineage C strains did however markedly prolong murine nasal infection with enhanced nasal and airborne shedding compared with non-Lineage C strains. Deletion of speC or spd1 in 2 Lineage C strains identified a possible role for spd1 in airborne shedding from the murine nasopharynx. Conclusions: Nasopharyngeal infection and shedding of Lineage C strains was enhanced compared with non-Lineage C strains and this was, in part, mediated by the gain of the DNase spd1 through prophage acquisition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baharak Afshar
- a Department of Medicine , Imperial College London , London , U.K.,b National Infection Service, Public Health England , London , U.K
| | - Claire E Turner
- a Department of Medicine , Imperial College London , London , U.K
| | | | - Ken C Smith
- c Pathology and Pathogen Biology , Royal Veterinary College, University of London , Hertfordshire , U.K
| | - Ali Al-Shahib
- b National Infection Service, Public Health England , London , U.K
| | | | - Matthew T G Holden
- d Pathogen Genomics , The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus , Hinxton , Cambridge , U.K.,e School of Medicine , University of St Andrews , St. Andrews , U.K
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Development of a multicomponent vaccine for Streptococcus pyogenes based on the antigenic targets of IVIG. J Infect 2016; 72:450-9. [PMID: 26880087 PMCID: PMC4796040 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Objectives Despite over a century of research and the careful scrutiny of many promising targets, there is currently no vaccine available for the prevention of Streptococcus pyogenes infection. Through analysis of the protective, anti-streptococcal components of pooled human immunoglobulin, we previously identified ten highly conserved and invariant S. pyogenes antigens that contribute to anti-streptococcal immunity in the adult population. We sought to emulate population immunity to S. pyogenes through a process of active vaccination, using the antigens targeted by pooled human immunoglobulin. Methods Seven targets were produced recombinantly and mixed to form a multicomponent vaccine (Spy7). Vaccinated mice were challenged with S. pyogenes isolates representing four globally relevant serotypes (M1, M3, M12 and M89) using an established model of invasive disease. Results Vaccination with Spy7 stimulated the production of anti-streptococcal antibodies, and limited systemic dissemination of M1 and M3 S. pyogenes from an intramuscular infection focus. Vaccination additionally attenuated disease severity due to M1 S. pyogenes as evidenced by reduction in weight loss, and modulated cytokine release. Conclusion Spy7 vaccination successfully stimulated the generation of protective anti-streptococcal immunity in vivo. Identification of reactive antigens using pooled human immunoglobulin may represent a novel route to vaccine discovery for extracellular bacteria. Targets of population level immunity to Streptococcus pyogenes can be identified using pooled IVIG. Seven conserved targets were combined to form a new vaccine (Spy7). Vaccine antigen components were individually immunogenic. Vaccination with Spy7 reduced dissemination of invasive M1 and M3 S. pyogenes. The immuno-proteomic approach to vaccine discovery may be applicable to other pathogens.
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Dinis M, Plainvert C, Longo M, Guignot J, Gabriel C, Poyart C, Fouet A. Group A Streptococcus emm3 strains induce early macrophage cell death. Pathog Dis 2015; 74:ftv124. [PMID: 26702632 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftv124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus (GAS) infections present high morbidity and mortality rates and consequently remain a significant health problem. The emm3 isolates induce more severe pathologies than all others. In this study, we tested, on a collection of invasive and non-invasive emm3 clinical isolates, whether in that genotype the invasive status of the strains affects the innate immune response. We show that phagocytosis is dependent on the invasiveness of the isolates. Interestingly, all emm3 isolates compromise macrophage integrity, already noticeable 1 h after infection. Inflammatory modulators (IL-6, TNF-α and IFN-β) are nevertheless detected during at least 6 h post-infection. This is a likely consequence of the macrophages not being all infected. The efficient and rapid induction of macrophage death could explain the virulence of the emm3 strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Márcia Dinis
- INSERM U 1016, Institut Cochin, Unité FRM 'Barrières et Pathogènes' F-75014 Paris, France CNRS UMR 8104, F-75014 Paris, France Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, F-75014 Paris, France
| | - Céline Plainvert
- INSERM U 1016, Institut Cochin, Unité FRM 'Barrières et Pathogènes' F-75014 Paris, France CNRS UMR 8104, F-75014 Paris, France Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, F-75014 Paris, France Centre National de Référence des Streptocoques, F-75014 Paris, France Hôpitaux Universitaires Paris Centre, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, F-75014 Paris, France
| | - Magalie Longo
- INSERM U 1016, Institut Cochin, Unité FRM 'Barrières et Pathogènes' F-75014 Paris, France CNRS UMR 8104, F-75014 Paris, France Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, F-75014 Paris, France
| | - Julie Guignot
- INSERM U 1016, Institut Cochin, Unité FRM 'Barrières et Pathogènes' F-75014 Paris, France CNRS UMR 8104, F-75014 Paris, France Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, F-75014 Paris, France
| | - Christelle Gabriel
- INSERM U 1016, Institut Cochin, Unité FRM 'Barrières et Pathogènes' F-75014 Paris, France CNRS UMR 8104, F-75014 Paris, France Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, F-75014 Paris, France
| | - Claire Poyart
- INSERM U 1016, Institut Cochin, Unité FRM 'Barrières et Pathogènes' F-75014 Paris, France CNRS UMR 8104, F-75014 Paris, France Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, F-75014 Paris, France Centre National de Référence des Streptocoques, F-75014 Paris, France Hôpitaux Universitaires Paris Centre, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, F-75014 Paris, France
| | - Agnès Fouet
- INSERM U 1016, Institut Cochin, Unité FRM 'Barrières et Pathogènes' F-75014 Paris, France CNRS UMR 8104, F-75014 Paris, France Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, F-75014 Paris, France Centre National de Référence des Streptocoques, F-75014 Paris, France
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Rash NL, Robinson C, DeSouza N, Nair S, Hodgson H, Steward K, Waller AS, Paillot R. Prevalence and disease associations of superantigens szeF, szeN and szeP in the S. zooepidemicus population and possible functional redundancy of szeF. Res Vet Sci 2014; 97:481-7. [PMID: 25267286 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2014.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Revised: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus) causes a variety of infections in a broad range of species. This study broadens prevalence data for three recently identified novel superantigens (szeF, szeN, and szeP) to define links between their presence and disease type. Screening of 437 strains across 190 sequence types (STs) revealed that 50% of strains contained superantigen genes. Results confirmed that the presence of S. zooepidemicus superantigen genes is significantly associated with non-Strangles lymph node abscessation in the horse (p-value = 0.003) and their absence is associated with uterine infection/abortion (p-value = 0.006). This study also investigated the lack of mitogenicity observed in szeF only. Results show that szeF is polymorphic, with 23 different alleles, and mutations altering the protein sequence. Gene expression differences are not responsible for lack of mitogenic activity in these strains. Taken together, these findings suggest that superantigens are important for S. zooepidemicus pathogenesis but SzeF probably has little involvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- N L Rash
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK
| | - C Robinson
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK
| | - N DeSouza
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK
| | - S Nair
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK
| | - H Hodgson
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK
| | - K Steward
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK
| | - A S Waller
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK
| | - R Paillot
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK.
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Streptococcal superantigens: categorization and clinical associations. Trends Mol Med 2013; 20:48-62. [PMID: 24210845 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Revised: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Superantigens are key virulence factors in the immunopathogenesis of invasive disease caused by group A streptococcus. These protein exotoxins have also been associated with severe group C and group G streptococcal infections. A number of novel streptococcal superantigens have recently been described with some resulting confusion in their classification. In addition to clarifying the nomenclature of streptococcal superantigens and proposing guidelines for their categorization, this review summarizes the evidence supporting their involvement in various clinical diseases including acute rheumatic fever.
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Reglinski M, Sriskandan S. The contribution of group A streptococcal virulence determinants to the pathogenesis of sepsis. Virulence 2013; 5:127-36. [PMID: 24157731 PMCID: PMC3916366 DOI: 10.4161/viru.26400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcus, GAS) is responsible for a wide range of pathologies ranging from mild pharyngitis and impetigo to severe invasive soft tissue infections. Despite the continuing susceptibility of the bacterium to β-lactam antibiotics there has been an unexplained resurgence in the prevalence of invasive GAS infection over the past 30 years. Of particular importance was the emergence of a GAS-associated sepsis syndrome that is analogous to the systemic toxicosis associated with TSST-1 producing strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Despite being recognized for over 20 years, the etiology of GAS associated sepsis and the streptococcal toxic shock syndrome remains poorly understood. Here we review the virulence factors that contribute to the etiology of GAS associated sepsis with a particular focus on coagulation system interactions and the role of the superantigens in the development of streptococcal toxic shock syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Reglinski
- Department of Infectious Disease and Immunity; Imperial College London; London, UK
| | - Shiranee Sriskandan
- Department of Infectious Disease and Immunity; Imperial College London; London, UK
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