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Glycomimetic Peptides as Therapeutic Tools. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15020688. [PMID: 36840010 PMCID: PMC9966187 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15020688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The entry of peptides into glycobiology has led to the development of a unique class of therapeutic tools. Although numerous and well-known peptides are active as endocrine regulatory factors that bind to specific receptors, and peptides have been used extensively as epitopes for vaccine production, the use of peptides that mimic sugars as ligands of lectin-type receptors has opened a unique approach to modulate activity of immune cells. Ground-breaking work that initiated the use of peptides as tools for therapy identified sugar mimetics by screening phage display libraries. The peptides that have been discovered show significant potential as high-avidity, therapeutic tools when synthesized as multivalent structures. Advantages of peptides over sugars as drugs for immune modulation will be illustrated in this review.
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Hoober JK, Eggink LL. The Discovery and Function of Filaggrin. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031455. [PMID: 35163390 PMCID: PMC8835998 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Keratohyalin granules were discovered in the mid-19th century in cells that terminally differentiate to form the outer, cornified layer of the epidermis. The first indications of the composition of these structures emerged in the 1960s from a histochemical stain for histidine, followed by radioautographic evidence of a high incidence of histidine incorporation into newly synthesized proteins in cells containing the granules. Research during the next three decades revealed the structure and function of a major protein in these granules, which was initially called the ‘histidine-rich protein’. Steinert and Dale named the protein ‘filaggrin’ in 1981 because of its ability to aggregate keratin intermediate filaments. The human gene for the precursor, ‘profilaggrin,’ was reported in 1991 to encode 10, 11 or 12 nearly identical repeats. Remarkably, the mouse and rat genes encode up to 20 repeats. The lifetime of filaggrin is the time required for keratinocytes in the granular layer to move into the inner cornified layer. During this transition, filaggrin facilitates the collapse of corneocytes into ‘building blocks’ that become an impermeable surface barrier. The subsequent degradation of filaggrin is as remarkable as its synthesis, and the end-products aid in maintaining moisture in the cornified layer. It was apparent that ichthyosis vulgaris and atopic dermatitis were associated with the absence of this protein. McLean’s team in 2006 identified the cause of these diseases by discovering loss-of-function mutations in the profilaggrin gene, which led to dysfunction of the surface barrier. This story illustrates the complexity in maintaining a healthy, functional epidermis.
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Molecular Mechanism of Epidermal Barrier Dysfunction as Primary Abnormalities. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21041194. [PMID: 32054030 PMCID: PMC7072774 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21041194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidermal barrier integrity could be influenced by various factors involved in epidermal cell differentiation and proliferation, cell–cell adhesion, and skin lipids. Dysfunction of this barrier can cause skin disorders, including eczema. Inversely, eczema can also damage the epidermal barrier. These interactions through vicious cycles make the mechanism complicated in connection with other mechanisms, particularly immunologic responses. In this article, the molecular mechanisms concerning epidermal barrier abnormalities are reviewed in terms of the following categories: epidermal calcium gradients, filaggrin, cornified envelopes, desquamation, and skin lipids. Mechanisms linked to ichthyoses, atopic dermatitis without exacerbation or lesion, and early time of experimental irritation were included. On the other hand, the mechanism associated with epidermal barrier abnormalities resulting from preceding skin disorders was excluded. The molecular mechanism involved in epidermal barrier dysfunction has been mostly episodic. Some mechanisms have been identified in cultured cells or animal models. Nonetheless, research into the relationship between the causative molecules has been gradually increasing. Further evidence-based systematic data of target molecules and their interactions would probably be helpful for a better understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying the dysfunction of the epidermal barrier.
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Su H, Luo Y, Sun J, Liu X, Ling S, Xu B, Zhang Y, Liu J, Li W, Wang B, Yao X. Transglutaminase 3 Promotes Skin Inflammation in Atopic Dermatitis by Activating Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells via DC-SIGN. J Invest Dermatol 2020; 140:370-379.e8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2019.07.703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Egawa G, Kabashima K. Multifactorial skin barrier deficiency and atopic dermatitis: Essential topics to prevent the atopic march. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2016; 138:350-358.e1. [PMID: 27497277 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is the most common inflammatory skin disease in the industrialized world and has multiple causes. Over the past decade, data from both experimental models and patients have highlighted the primary pathogenic role of skin barrier deficiency in patients with AD. Increased access of environmental agents into the skin results in chronic inflammation and contributes to the systemic "atopic (allergic) march." In addition, persistent skin inflammation further attenuates skin barrier function, resulting in a positive feedback loop between the skin epithelium and the immune system that drives pathology. Understanding the mechanisms of skin barrier maintenance is essential for improving management of AD and limiting downstream atopic manifestations. In this article we review the latest developments in our understanding of the pathomechanisms of skin barrier deficiency, with a particular focus on the formation of the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the skin, which contributes significantly to skin barrier function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyohei Egawa
- Department of Dermatology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan.
| | - Kenji Kabashima
- Department of Dermatology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan; Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN) and Institute of Medical Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Biopolis, Singapore; PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Saitama, Japan.
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Gruber R, Börnchen C, Rose K, Daubmann A, Volksdorf T, Wladykowski E, Vidal-Y-Sy S, Peters EM, Danso M, Bouwstra JA, Hennies HC, Moll I, Schmuth M, Brandner JM. Diverse regulation of claudin-1 and claudin-4 in atopic dermatitis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2015; 185:2777-89. [PMID: 26319240 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2015.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2015] [Revised: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Tight junctions are important for skin barrier function. The tight junction protein claudin 1 (Cldn-1) has been reported to be down-regulated in nonlesional skin of atopic dermatitis (AD) patients. In contrast, we did not observe a significant down-regulation of Cldn-1 in nonlesional skin of the AD cohort used in this study. However, for the first time, a significant down-regulation of Cldn-1 in the upper and lower epidermal layers of lesional skin was detected. In addition, there was a significant up-regulation of Cldn-4 in nonlesional, but not lesional, AD skin. For occludin, no significant alterations were observed. In an AD-like allergic dermatitis mouse model, Cldn-1 down-regulation in eczema was significantly influenced by dermal inflammation, and significantly correlated with hallmarks of eczema (ie, increased keratinocyte proliferation, altered keratinocyte differentiation, increased epidermal thickness, and impaired barrier function). In human epidermal equivalents, the addition of IL-4, IL-13, and IL-31 resulted in a down-regulation of Cldn-1, and Cldn1 knockdown in keratinocytes resulted in abnormal differentiation. In summary, we provide the first evidence that Cldn-1 and Cldn-4 are differentially involved in AD pathogenesis. Our data suggest a role of Cldn-1 in AD eczema formation triggered by inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Gruber
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology, and Allergology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria; Division of Human Genetics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Christian Börnchen
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Katharina Rose
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Anne Daubmann
- Department of Medical Biometry and Epidemiology, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Volksdorf
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ewa Wladykowski
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sabine Vidal-Y-Sy
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Eva M Peters
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, Psychoneuroimmunology Laboratory, Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, Germany; Center for Internal Medicine and Dermatology, Charité-University Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mogbekeloluwa Danso
- Department of Drug Delivery Technology, Leiden Academic Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Joke A Bouwstra
- Department of Drug Delivery Technology, Leiden Academic Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Hans C Hennies
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology, and Allergology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria; Division of Human Genetics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria; Cologne Center for Genomics, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Ingrid Moll
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Schmuth
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology, and Allergology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Johanna M Brandner
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.
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Ress K, Teesalu K, Annus T, Putnik U, Lepik K, Luts K, Uibo O, Uibo R. Low prevalence of IgA anti-transglutaminase 1, 2, and 3 autoantibodies in children with atopic dermatitis. BMC Res Notes 2014; 7:310. [PMID: 24885370 PMCID: PMC4045883 DOI: 10.1186/1756-0500-7-310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a multifactorial chronic inflammatory skin disease presenting with a relapsing clinical pattern similar to chronic autoimmune disease. Several human transglutaminases have been defined and keratinocyte transglutaminase (TG1) and epidermal transglutaminase (TG3) expressed in the epidermis are associated with epidermal barrier dysfunction. Since impairments to the epidermal barrier represent an important factor in AD, we hypothesized that IgA autoantibodies specific for TG1 (IgA-anti-TG1) and TG3 (IgA-anti-TG3) may affect AD development during childhood. Methods Active AD patients (n = 304), 28 patients with biopsy-confirmed coeliac disease (CD), 5 patients with active AD and CD, and 55 control patients without CD and skin diseases were enrolled into the study. IgA-anti-TG1 and IgA-anti-TG3 reactivity was determined using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. IgA-anti-TG2 were defined using a fluoroenzyme immunoassay. Results IgA-anti-TG1 antibodies were found in 2% and IgA-anti-TG3 antibodies in 3% of patients with active AD. Two out of the 5 patients with AD and concomitant CD had IgA-anti-TG1 and IgA-anti-TG2 antibodies. In CD patients, 36% of individuals presented with elevated IgA-anti-TG1 antibodies and 18% presented with elevated IgA-anti-TG3 antibodies and all CD patients presented with IgA-anti-TG2 antibodies (significantly different from AD patients and controls, p < 0.05). In CD patients, IgA-anti-TG1 and/or IgA-anti-TG3 seropositivity tended to appear concurrently, whereas only one patient with AD had both types of autoantibodies. Conclusions IgA-anti-TG1 and IgA-anti-TG3 seropositivity was rare in active AD but frequent in CD patients. The level of circulating antibodies related to skin lesions could be studied by determining the levels of IgA-anti-TG1 and IgA-anti-TG3 in skin biopsies of AD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Raivo Uibo
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Bio- and Translational Medicine and Centre of Excellence for Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila 19, 50411 Tartu, Estonia.
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