Plexin A3 and turnout regulate motor axonal branch morphogenesis in zebrafish

Lowered GnT-I Activity Decreases Complex-Type N-Glycan Amounts and Results in an Aberrant Primary Motor Neuron Structure in the Spinal Cord

The attachment of sugar to proteins and lipids is a basic modification needed for organismal survival, and perturbations in glycosylation cause severe developmental and neurological difficulties. Here, we investigated the neurological consequences of N-glycan populations in the spinal cord of Wt AB and mgat1b mutant zebrafish. Mutant fish have reduced N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase-I (GnT-I) activity as mgat1a remains intact. GnT-I converts oligomannose N-glycans to hybrid N-glycans, which is needed for complex N-glycan production. MALDI-TOF MS profiles identified N-glycans in the spinal cord for the first time and revealed reduced amounts of complex N-glycans in mutant fish, supporting a lesion in mgat1b. Further lectin blotting showed that oligomannose N-glycans were more prevalent in the spinal cord, skeletal muscle, heart, swim bladder, skin, and testis in mutant fish relative to WT AB, supporting lowered GnT- I activity in a global manner. Developmental delays were noted in hatching and in the swim bladder. Microscopic images of caudal primary (CaP) motor neurons of the spinal cord transiently expressing EGFP in mutant fish were abnormal with significant reductions in collateral branches. Further motor coordination skills were impaired in mutant fish. We conclude that identifying the neurological consequences of aberrant N-glycan processing will enhance our understanding of the role of complex N-glycans in development and nervous system health.

NMJ Analyser: a novel method to quantify neuromuscular junction morphology in zebrafish

MOTIVATION

Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) structural integrity is crucial for transducing motor neuron signals that initiate skeletal muscle contraction. Zebrafish has emerged as a simple and efficient model to study NMJ structural morphology and function in the context of developmental neurobiology and neuromuscular diseases. However, methods to quantify NMJ morphology from voluminous data of NMJ confocal images accurately, rapidly, and reproducibly are lacking.

RESULTS

We developed an ImageJ macro called "NMJ Analyser" to automatically and unbiasedly analyse NMJ morphology in zebrafish. From the Z-stack of a zebrafish hemisomite, both presynaptic and postsynaptic fluorescently labeled termini at NMJs are extracted from background signal, with larger clusters of termini being segmented into individual termini using an unbiased algorithm. The program then determines whether each presynaptic terminus is co-localized with a postsynaptic terminus and vice versa, or whether it is orphaned, and tabulates the number of orphan and co-localized pre- and postsynaptic termini. The usefulness of this ImageJ macro plugin will be helpful to quantify NMJ parameters in zebrafish, particularly during development and in disease models of neuromuscular diseases. It can enable high-throughput NMJ phenotypic screens in the drug discovery process for neuromuscular diseases. It could also be further applied to the investigation of NMJ of other developmental systems.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

NMJ Analyser is available for download at https://github.com/PattenLab/NMJ-Analyser.git.

Quantitative Image Analysis of Axonal Morphology in In Vivo Model

Quantifying axonal branching is crucial for understanding neural circuit function, developmental and regeneration processes and disease mechanisms. Factors that regulate patterns of axonal arborization and tune neuronal circuits are investigated for their implication in various disorders in brain connectivity. The lack of a reliable and user-friendly method makes the quantitative analysis of axon morphology difficult. Specifically, methods to visualize and quantify the complex axon arborization are challenging to implement and apply practically. Our study was aimed at developing a robust but simple method of quantification that used ImageJ 2D analysis and compared it with Imaris visualization and analysis of 3D images. We used zebrafish fluorescent transgenic lines to perform in vivo imaging of developing motor neuron axons that adequately reflected the complexity of axonal networks. Our new method, developed on ImageJ, is easy and fast, giving access to new information such as collateral distribution along the axonal shaft. This study describes step-by-step procedures that can be easily applied to a variety of organisms and in vitro systems. Our study provides a basis for further exploration of neural circuits to gain new insights into neuronal disorders and potential therapeutic interventions.

Peripheral nerve development in zebrafish requires muscle patterning by tcf15/paraxis

The vertebrate peripheral nervous system (PNS) is an intricate network that conveys sensory and motor information throughout the body. During development, extracellular cues direct the migration of axons and glia through peripheral tissues. Currently, the suite of molecules that govern PNS axon-glial patterning is incompletely understood. To elucidate factors that are critical for peripheral nerve development, we characterized the novel zebrafish mutant, stl159, that exhibits abnormalities in PNS patterning. In these mutants, motor and sensory nerves that develop adjacent to axial muscle fail to extend normally, and neuromasts in the posterior lateral line system, as well as neural crest-derived melanocytes, are incorrectly positioned. The stl159 genetic lesion lies in the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor tcf15, which has been previously implicated in proper development of axial muscles. We find that targeted loss of tcf15 via CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing results in the PNS patterning abnormalities observed in stl159 mutants. Because tcf15 is expressed in developing muscle prior to nerve extension, rather than in neurons or glia, we predict that tcf15 non-cell-autonomously promotes peripheral nerve patterning in zebrafish through regulation of extracellular patterning cues. Our work underscores the importance of muscle-derived factors in PNS development.

Dynamic morphogenesis of a pioneer axon in Drosophila and its regulation by Abl tyrosine kinase

The fundamental problem in axon growth and guidance is to understand how cytoplasmic signaling modulates the cytoskeleton to produce directed growth cone motility. We here dissect this process using live imaging of the TSM1 axon of the developing Drosophila wing. We find that the growth cone is almost purely filopodial, and that it extends by a protrusive mode of growth. Quantitative analysis reveals two separate groups of growth cone properties that together account for growth cone structure and dynamics. The core morphological features of the growth cone are strongly correlated with one another and define two discrete morphs. Genetic manipulation of a critical mediator of axon guidance signaling, Abelson (Abl) tyrosine kinase, shows that while Abl weakly modulates the ratio of the two morphs it does not greatly change their properties. Rather, Abl primarily regulates the second group of properties, which report the organization and distribution of actin in the growth cone and are coupled to growth cone velocity. Other experiments dissect the nature of that regulation of actin organization and how it controls the spatial localization of filopodial dynamics and thus axon extension. Together, these observations suggest a novel, probabilistic mechanism by which Abl biases the stochastic fluctuations of growth cone actin to direct axon growth and guidance.

Livin' On The Edge: glia shape nervous system transition zones

The vertebrate nervous system is divided into two functional halves; the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves and ganglia. Incoming peripheral stimuli transmitted from the periphery to the CNS and subsequent motor responses created because of this information, require efficient communication between the two halves that make up this organ system. Neurons and glial cells of each half of the nervous system, which are the main actors in this communication, segregate across nervous system transition zones and never mix, allowing for efficient neurotransmission. Studies aimed at understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms governing the development and maintenance of these transition zones have predominantly focused on mammalian models. However, zebrafish has emerged as a powerful model organism to study these structures and has allowed researchers to identify novel glial cells and mechanisms essential for nervous system assembly. This review will highlight recent advances into the important role that glial cells play in building and maintaining the nervous system and its boundaries.

It takes a village to raise a branch: Cellular mechanisms of the initiation of axon collateral branches

The formation of axon collateral branches from the pre-existing shafts of axons is an important aspect of neurodevelopment and the response of the nervous system to injury. This article provides an overview of the role of the cytoskeleton and signaling mechanisms in the formation of axon collateral branches. Both the actin filament and microtubule components of the cytoskeleton are required for the formation of axon branches. Recent work has begun to shed light on how these two elements of the cytoskeleton are integrated by proteins that functionally or physically link the cytoskeleton. While a number of signaling pathways have been determined as having a role in the formation of axon branches, the complexity of the downstream mechanisms and links to specific signaling pathways remain to be fully determined. The regulation of intra-axonal protein synthesis and organelle function are also emerging as components of signal-induced axon branching. Although much has been learned in the last couple of decades about the mechanistic basis of axon branching we can look forward to continue elucidating this complex biological phenomenon with the aim of understanding how multiple signaling pathways, cytoskeletal regulators and organelles are coordinated locally along the axon to give rise to a branch.

Myosin phosphatase Fine-tunes Zebrafish Motoneuron Position during Axonogenesis

During embryogenesis the spinal cord shifts position along the anterior-posterior axis relative to adjacent tissues. How motor neurons whose cell bodies are located in the spinal cord while their axons reside in adjacent tissues compensate for such tissue shift is not well understood. Using live cell imaging in zebrafish, we show that as motor axons exit from the spinal cord and extend through extracellular matrix produced by adjacent notochord cells, these cells shift several cell diameters caudally. Despite this pronounced shift, individual motoneuron cell bodies stay aligned with their extending axons. We find that this alignment requires myosin phosphatase activity within motoneurons, and that mutations in the myosin phosphatase subunit mypt1 increase myosin phosphorylation causing a displacement between motoneuron cell bodies and their axons. Thus, we demonstrate that spinal motoneurons fine-tune their position during axonogenesis and we identify the myosin II regulatory network as a key regulator.

Axon Branch-Specific Semaphorin-1a Signaling in Drosophila Mushroom Body Development

Correct wiring of the mushroom body (MB) neuropil in the Drosophila brain involves appropriate positioning of different axonal lobes, as well as the sister branches that develop from individual axons. This positioning requires the integration of various guidance cues provided by different cell types, which help the axons find their final positions within the neuropil. Semaphorins are well-known for their conserved roles in neuronal development and axon guidance. We investigated the role of Sema-1a in MB development more closely. We show that Sema-1a is expressed in the MBs as well as surrounding structures, including the glial transient interhemispheric fibrous ring, throughout development. By loss- and gain-of-function experiments, we show that the MB axons display lobe and sister branch-specific Sema-1a signaling, which controls different aspects of axon outgrowth and guidance. Furthermore, we demonstrate that these effects are modulated by the integration of MB intrinsic and extrinsic Sema-1a signaling pathways involving PlexA and PlexB. Finally, we also show a role for neuronal- glial interaction in Sema-1a dependent β-lobe outgrowth.

Neuromuscular regulation in zebrafish by a large AAA+ ATPase/ubiquitin ligase, mysterin/RNF213

Mysterin (also known as RNF213) is a huge intracellular protein with two AAA+ ATPase modules and a RING finger ubiquitin ligase domain. Mysterin was originally isolated as a significant risk factor for the cryptogenic cerebrovascular disorder moyamoya disease, and was found to be involved in physiological angiogenesis in zebrafish. However, the function and the physiological significance of mysterin in other than blood vessels remain largely unknown, although mysterin is ubiquitously expressed in animal tissues. In this study, we performed antisense-mediated suppression of a mysterin orthologue in zebrafish larvae and revealed that mysterin-deficient larvae showed significant reduction in fast myofibrils and immature projection of primary motoneurons, leading to severe motor deficits. Fast muscle-specific restoration of mysterin expression cancelled these phenotypes, and interestingly both AAA+ ATPase and ubiquitin ligase activities of mysterin were indispensable for proper fast muscle formation, demonstrating an essential role of mysterin and its enzymatic activities in the neuromuscular regulation in zebrafish.

Motoneuron axon pathfinding errors in zebrafish: differential effects related to concentration and timing of nicotine exposure

Nicotine exposure during embryonic stages of development can affect many neurodevelopmental processes. In the developing zebrafish, exposure to nicotine was reported to cause axonal pathfinding errors in the later born secondary motoneurons (SMNs). These alterations in SMN axon morphology coincided with muscle degeneration at high nicotine concentrations (15-30 μM). Previous work showed that the paralytic mutant zebrafish known as sofa potato exhibited nicotine-induced effects onto SMN axons at these high concentrations but in the absence of any muscle deficits, indicating that pathfinding errors could occur independent of muscle effects. In this study, we used varying concentrations of nicotine at different developmental windows of exposure to specifically isolate its effects onto subpopulations of motoneuron axons. We found that nicotine exposure can affect SMN axon morphology in a dose-dependent manner. At low concentrations of nicotine, SMN axons exhibited pathfinding errors, in the absence of any nicotine-induced muscle abnormalities. Moreover, the nicotine exposure paradigms used affected the 3 subpopulations of SMN axons differently, but the dorsal projecting SMN axons were primarily affected. We then identified morphologically distinct pathfinding errors that best described the nicotine-induced effects on dorsal projecting SMN axons. To test whether SMN pathfinding was potentially influenced by alterations in the early born primary motoneuron (PMN), we performed dual labeling studies, where both PMN and SMN axons were simultaneously labeled with antibodies. We show that only a subset of the SMN axon pathfinding errors coincided with abnormal PMN axonal targeting in nicotine-exposed zebrafish. We conclude that nicotine exposure can exert differential effects depending on the levels of nicotine and developmental exposure window.