Strategies for expanding the operational range of channelrhodopsin in optogenetic vision

Visual properties of human retinal ganglion cells

The retinal output is the sole source of visual information for the brain. Studies in non-primate mammals estimate that this information is carried by several dozens of retinal ganglion cell types, each informing the brain about different aspects of a visual scene. Even though morphological studies of primate retina suggest a similar diversity of ganglion cell types, research has focused on the function of only a few cell types. In human retina, recordings from individual cells are anecdotal or focus on a small subset of identified types. Here, we present the first systematic ex-vivo recording of light responses from 342 ganglion cells in human retinas obtained from donors. We find a great variety in the human retinal output in terms of preferences for positive or negative contrast, spatio-temporal frequency encoding, contrast sensitivity, and speed tuning. Some human ganglion cells showed similar response behavior as known cell types in other primate retinas, while we also recorded light responses that have not been described previously. This first extensive description of the human retinal output should facilitate interpretation of primate data and comparison to other mammalian species, and it lays the basis for the use of ex-vivo human retina for in-vitro analysis of novel treatment approaches.

[Optogenetics and prosthetic treatment of retinal degeneration]

This is a review of the current state of optogenetics-based research in the field of ophthalmology and physiology of vision. Optogenetics employs an interdisciplinary approach that amalgamates gene engineering, optics, and physiology. It involves exogenous expression of a light-activated protein in a very particular retinal cell enabling regulation (stimulation vs. inhibition) of its physiological activity. The experience with gene therapy came in very useful for optogenetics. However, unlike gene therapy, which is aimed at repairing damaged genes or replacing them with healthy ones, optogenetics is focused on protein genes delivery for further molecular control of the cell. In retina, the loss of photoreceptors is not necessarily followed by neuronal loss (at least ganglion cells remain intact), which determines the practicability of prosthetic treatment. Clinical trials can now be considered, owing to the first successful conversion of ganglion cells of mouse degenerative retinas into artificial photoreceptive cells with ON and OFF receptive fields, which is crucial for spatial vision. The following issues are reviewed here in detail: 1. Choice of cell targets within the degenerative retina. 2. Strategy of utilizing the existing light-sensitive agents and development of new optogenetic tools. 3. Gene delivery and expression in retinal cells. 4. Methods of evaluating the treatment success. 5. Selection criteria for optogenetic prosthetics. The conclusion discusses currently unsolved problems and prospects for optogenetic approaches to retinal prosthetics.

Salvaging ruins: reverting blind retinas into functional visual sensors

Blindness is one of the most devastating conditions affecting the quality of life. Hereditary degenerative diseases, such as retinitis pigmentosa, are characterized by the progressive loss of photoreceptors, leading to complete blindness. No treatment is known, the current state-of-the-art of restoring vision are implanted electrode arrays. As a recently discovered alternative, optical neuromodulators, such as channelrhodopsin, allow new strategies for treating these diseases by imparting light-sensitivity onto the remaining retinal neurons after photoreceptor cell death. Retinal degeneration is a heterogeneous set of diseases with diverse secondary effects on the retinal circuitry. Successful treatment strategies have to take into account this diversity, as only the existing retinal hardware can serve as substrate for optogenetic intervention. The goal is to salvage the retinal ruins and to revert the leftover tissue into a functional visual sensor that operates as optimally as possible. Here, we discuss three different successful approaches that have been applied to degenerated mouse retina.