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Grilc N, Valappil AC, Tillin NA, Mian OS, Wright DJ, Holmes PS, Castelli F, Bruton AM. Motor imagery drives the effects of combined action observation and motor imagery on corticospinal excitability for coordinative lower-limb actions. Sci Rep 2024; 14:13057. [PMID: 38844650 PMCID: PMC11156847 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-63758-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Combined action observation and motor imagery (AOMI) facilitates corticospinal excitability (CSE) and may potentially induce plastic-like changes in the brain in a similar manner to physical practice. This study used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to explore changes in CSE for AOMI of coordinative lower-limb actions. Twenty-four healthy adults completed two baseline (BLH, BLNH) and three AOMI conditions, where they observed a knee extension while simultaneously imagining the same action (AOMICONG), plantarflexion (AOMICOOR-FUNC), or dorsiflexion (AOMICOOR-MOVE). Motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitudes were recorded as a marker of CSE for all conditions from two knee extensor, one dorsi flexor, and two plantar flexor muscles following TMS to the right leg representation of the left primary motor cortex. A main effect for experimental condition was reported for all three muscle groups. MEP amplitudes were significantly greater in the AOMICONG condition compared to the BLNH condition (p = .04) for the knee extensors, AOMICOOR-FUNC condition compared to the BLH condition (p = .03) for the plantar flexors, and AOMICOOR-MOVE condition compared to the two baseline conditions for the dorsi flexors (ps ≤ .01). The study findings support the notion that changes in CSE are driven by the imagined actions during coordinative AOMI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neza Grilc
- Department of Life Sciences, Brunel University London, HNZW 271, Heinz Wolff Building, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, UK
- School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Roehampton, London, UK
| | | | - Neale A Tillin
- School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Roehampton, London, UK
| | - Omar S Mian
- School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Roehampton, London, UK
| | - David J Wright
- School of Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Paul S Holmes
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Federico Castelli
- School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Roehampton, London, UK
| | - Adam M Bruton
- Department of Life Sciences, Brunel University London, HNZW 271, Heinz Wolff Building, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, UK.
- School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Roehampton, London, UK.
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Esselaar M, Holmes PS, Scott MW, Wright DJ. No increase in corticospinal excitability during motor simulation provides a platform to explore the neurophysiology of aphantasia. Brain Commun 2024; 6:fcae084. [PMID: 38515442 PMCID: PMC10957127 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcae084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
This scientific commentary refers to 'Explicit and implicit motor simulations are impaired in individuals with aphantasia', by Dupont et al. (https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcae072) in Brain Communications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maaike Esselaar
- Department of Life Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK
| | - Paul S Holmes
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 7EL, UK
| | - Matthew W Scott
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z1
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, Canada V1V 1V7
| | - David J Wright
- Department of Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M15 6GX, UK
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Dupont W, Papaxanthis C, Madden-Lombardi C, Lebon F. Explicit and implicit motor simulations are impaired in individuals with aphantasia. Brain Commun 2024; 6:fcae072. [PMID: 38515440 PMCID: PMC10957132 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcae072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Individuals with aphantasia report having difficulties or an inability to generate visual images of objects or events. So far, there is no evidence showing that this condition also impacts the motor system and the generation of motor simulations. We probed the neurophysiological marker of aphantasia during explicit and implicit forms of motor simulation, i.e. motor imagery and action observation, respectively. We tested a group of individuals without any reported imagery deficits (phantasics) as well as a group of individuals self-reporting the inability to mentally simulate images or movements (aphantasics). We instructed the participants to explicitly imagine a maximal pinch movement in the visual and kinaesthetic modalities and to observe a video showing a pinch movement. By means of transcranial magnetic stimulation, we triggered motor-evoked potentials in the target right index finger. As expected, the amplitude of motor-evoked potentials, a marker of corticospinal excitability, increased for phantasics during kinaesthetic motor imagery and action observation relative to rest but not during visual motor imagery. Interestingly, the amplitude of motor-evoked potentials did not increase in any of the conditions for the group of aphantasics. This result provides neurophysiological evidence that individuals living with aphantasia have a real deficit in activating the motor system during motor simulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Dupont
- UFR des Sciences du Sport, INSERM UMR1093-CAPS, Université Bourgogne, Dijon F-21000, France
| | | | - Carol Madden-Lombardi
- UFR des Sciences du Sport, INSERM UMR1093-CAPS, Université Bourgogne, Dijon F-21000, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, France
| | - Florent Lebon
- UFR des Sciences du Sport, INSERM UMR1093-CAPS, Université Bourgogne, Dijon F-21000, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France
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Faro Viana F, Cotovio G, da Silva DR, Seybert C, Pereira P, Silva A, Carvalho F, Oliveira-Maia AJ. Reducing motor evoked potential amplitude variability through normalization. Front Psychiatry 2024; 15:1279072. [PMID: 38356910 PMCID: PMC10864444 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1279072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
BackgroundTranscranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is used for in vivo assessment of human motor cortical excitability, with application of TMS pulses over the motor cortex resulting in muscle responses that can be recorded with electromyography (EMG) as Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs). These have been widely explored as potential biomarkers for neuropsychiatric disorders but methodological heterogeneity in acquisition, and inherent high variability, have led to constraints in reproducibility. Normalization, consisting in scaling the signal of interest to a known and repeatable measurement, reduces variability and is standard practice for between-subject comparisons of EMG. The effect of normalization on variability of MEP amplitude has not yet been explored and was assessed here using several methods.MethodsThree maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVICs) and 40 MEPs were collected from the right hand in healthy volunteers, with a retest session conducted 4 to 8 weeks later. MEP amplitude was normalized using either external references (MVICs) or internal references (extreme MEPs). Iterative re-sampling of 30 normalized MEPs per subject was repeated 5,000 times to define, for each normalization method, distributions for between-subject coefficients of variation (CV) of the mean MEP amplitude. Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) were used to assess the impact of normalization on test–retest stability of MEP amplitude measurements.ResultsIn the absence of normalization, MEPs collected from the right hand of 47 healthy volunteers were within reported values regarding between-subject variability (95% confidence intervals for the CV: [1.0567,1.0577]) and showed good temporal stability (ICC = 0.77). Internal reference normalization substantially reduced between-subject variability, by values of up to 64%, while external reference normalization had no impact or increased between-subject variability. Normalization with the smallest references reduced test–retest stability, with use of the largest references resulting in slight reduction or improvement of ICCs. Internal reference normalization using the largest MEPs was found to be robust to several sensitivity analyses.ConclusionInternal, but not external, reference normalization reduces between-subject variability of MEP amplitude, and has a minimal impact on within-subject variability when conducted with the largest references. Additional research is necessary to further validate these normalization methods toward potential use of MEPs as biomarkers of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Faro Viana
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
- Champalimaud Clinical Centre, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Gonçalo Cotovio
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
- Champalimaud Clinical Centre, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
- NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Centro Hospitalar de Lisboa Ocidental, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Daniel Rodrigues da Silva
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
- Champalimaud Clinical Centre, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Carolina Seybert
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
- Champalimaud Clinical Centre, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Pereira
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
- Champalimaud Clinical Centre, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
- Portuguese Red Cross Health School, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Artur Silva
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Filipe Carvalho
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Albino J. Oliveira-Maia
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
- Champalimaud Clinical Centre, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
- NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
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Shih Y, Powers CM, Fisher BE. Reliability of a method to assess corticomotor excitability of lower limb muscles using a normalized EMG motor thresholding procedure. Sci Rep 2024; 14:2052. [PMID: 38267437 PMCID: PMC10808104 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-51622-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Given the importance of determining intervention-induced neuroplastic changes with lower extremity functional tasks, a reliable transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) methodology for proximal lower extremity muscles is needed. A pre-set fixed voltage value is typically used as the criterion for identifying a motor evoked potential (MEP) during the motor thresholding procedure. However, the fixed voltage value becomes problematic when the procedure is applied to proximal lower extremity muscles where active contractions are required. We sought to establish the reliability of a method measuring corticomotor excitability of gluteus maximus and vastus lateralis using normalized electromyography (EMG) as the criterion for identifying MEPs during the motor thresholding procedure. The active motor threshold for each muscle was determined using the lowest stimulator intensity required to elicit 5 MEPs that exceeded 20% maximal voluntary isometric contraction from 10 stimulations. TMS data were obtained from 10 participants on 2 separate days and compared using random-effect intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs). Slopes from two input-output curve fitting methods as well as the maximum MEP of gluteus maximus and vastus lateralis were found to exhibit good to excellent reliability (ICCs ranging from 0.75 to 0.99). The described TMS method using EMG-normalized criteria for motor thresholding produced reliable results utilizing a relatively low number of TMS pulses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yo Shih
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
| | - Christopher M Powers
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Beth E Fisher
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Ishikawa K, Kaneko N, Sasaki A, Nakazawa K. Modulation of lower limb muscle corticospinal excitability during various types of motor imagery. Neurosci Lett 2024; 818:137551. [PMID: 37926294 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2023.137551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Motor imagery (MI) is used for rehabilitation and sports training. Previous studies focusing on the upper limb have investigated the effects of MI on corticospinal excitability in the muscles involved in the imagined movement (i.e., the agonist muscles). The present study focused on several lower-limb movements and investigated the influences of MI on corticospinal excitability in the lower limb muscles. Twelve healthy individuals (ten male and two female individuals) participated in this study. Motor-evoked potentials (MEP) from the rectus femoris (RF), biceps femoris (BF), tibialis anterior (TA), and soleus (SOL) muscles were elicited through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to the primary motor cortex during MI of knee extension, knee flexion, ankle dorsiflexion, and ankle plantarflexion and at rest. The results showed that the RF MEPs were significantly increased during MI in knee extension, ankle dorsiflexion, and ankle plantarflexion but not in knee flexion, compared with those at rest. The TA MEPs were significantly increased during MI in knee extension and foot dorsiflexion, while MEPs were not significantly different during MI in knee flexion and foot dorsiflexion than those at rest. For the BF and SOL muscles, there was no significant MEP modulation in either MI. These results demonstrated that corticospinal excitability of the RF and TA muscles was facilitated during MI of movements in which they are active and during MI of lower-limb movements in which they are not involved. On the contrary, corticospinal excitability of the BF and SOL muscles was not facilitated by MI of lower-limb movements. These results suggest that facilitation of corticospinal excitability depends on the muscle and the type of lower-limb MI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiichi Ishikawa
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Department of Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan
| | - Naotsugu Kaneko
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Department of Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan
| | - Atsushi Sasaki
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1611 NW 12th Ave, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Kimitaka Nakazawa
- Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Department of Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan.
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7
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Vetter DE, Zrenner C, Belardinelli P, Mutanen TP, Kozák G, Marzetti L, Ziemann U. Targeting motor cortex high-excitability states defined by functional connectivity with real-time EEG-TMS. Neuroimage 2023; 284:120427. [PMID: 38008297 PMCID: PMC10714128 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023] Open
Abstract
We tested previous post-hoc findings indicating a relationship between functional connectivity (FC) in the motor network and corticospinal excitability (CsE), in a real-time EEG-TMS experiment in healthy participants. We hypothesized that high FC between left and right motor cortex predicts high CsE. FC was quantified in real-time by single-trial phase-locking value (stPLV), and TMS single pulses were delivered based on the current FC. CsE was indexed by motor-evoked potential (MEP) amplitude in a hand muscle. Possible confounding factors (pre-stimulus μ-power and phase, interstimulus interval) were evaluated post hoc. MEPs were significantly larger during high FC compared to low FC. Post hoc analysis revealed that the FC condition showed a significant interaction with μ-power in the stimulated hemisphere. Further, inter-stimulus interval (ISI) interacted with high vs. low FC conditions. In summary, FC was confirmed to be predictive of CsE, but should not be considered in isolation from μ-power and ISI. Moreover, FC was complementary to μ-phase in predicting CsE. Motor network FC is another marker of real-time accessible CsE beyond previously established markers, in particular phase and power of the μ rhythm, and may help define a more robust composite biomarker of high/low excitability states of human motor cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Emanuel Vetter
- Department of Neurology & Stroke, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany; Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Christoph Zrenner
- Department of Neurology & Stroke, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany; Temerty Centre for Therapeutic Brain Intervention, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Paolo Belardinelli
- Department of Neurology & Stroke, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany; CIMeC, Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Trento, Trentino-Alto Adige, Italy
| | - Tuomas Petteri Mutanen
- Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto Yliopisto, Espoo, Uusimaa, Finland
| | - Gábor Kozák
- Department of Neurology & Stroke, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany; Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Laura Marzetti
- Imaging and Clinical Sciences, Department of Neuroscience, University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Abruzzo, Italy; Institute for Advanced Biomedical Technologies, University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Abruzzo, Italy
| | - Ulf Ziemann
- Department of Neurology & Stroke, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany; Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.
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Ortega-Robles E, Cantillo-Negrete J, Carino-Escobar RI, Arias-Carrión O. Methodological approach for assessing motor cortical excitability changes with single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation. MethodsX 2023; 11:102451. [PMID: 38023316 PMCID: PMC10630640 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2023.102451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) serves as a crucial tool in evaluating motor cortex excitability by applying short magnetic pulses to the skull, inducing neuron depolarization in the cerebral cortex through electromagnetic induction. This technique leads to the activation of specific skeletal muscles recorded as Motor-Evoked Potentials (MEPs) through electromyography. Although various methodologies assess cortical excitability with TMS, measuring MEP amplitudes offers a straightforward approach, especially when comparing excitability states pre- and post-interventions designed to alter cortical excitability. Despite TMS's widespread use, the absence of a standardized procedure for such measurements in existing literature hinders the comparison of results across different studies. This paper proposes a standardized procedure for assessing changes in motor cortical excitability using single-pulse TMS pre- and post-intervention. The recommended approach utilizes an intensity equating to half of the MEP's maximum amplitude, thereby ensuring equal likelihood of amplitude increase or decrease, providing a consistent basis for future studies and facilitating meaningful comparisons of results.•A method for assessing changes in motor cortical excitability using single-pulse TMS before and after a specified intervention.•We recommend using an intensity equal to half of the MEP's maximum amplitude during evaluations to objectively assess motor cortical excitability changes post-intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Ortega-Robles
- Unidad de Trastornos del Movimiento y Sueño, Hospital General Dr. Manuel Gea González, Mexico City 14080, Mexico
| | - Jessica Cantillo-Negrete
- División de Investigación en Neurociencias Clínica, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Mexico City 14389, Mexico
| | - Ruben I. Carino-Escobar
- División de Investigación en Neurociencias Clínica, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Mexico City 14389, Mexico
| | - Oscar Arias-Carrión
- Unidad de Trastornos del Movimiento y Sueño, Hospital General Dr. Manuel Gea González, Mexico City 14080, Mexico
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Ahn E, Majumdar A, Lee T, Brang D. Evidence for a Causal Dissociation of the McGurk Effect and Congruent Audiovisual Speech Perception via TMS. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.27.568892. [PMID: 38077093 PMCID: PMC10705272 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.27.568892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Congruent visual speech improves speech perception accuracy, particularly in noisy environments. Conversely, mismatched visual speech can alter what is heard, leading to an illusory percept known as the McGurk effect. This illusion has been widely used to study audiovisual speech integration, illustrating that auditory and visual cues are combined in the brain to generate a single coherent percept. While prior transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and neuroimaging studies have identified the left posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) as a causal region involved in the generation of the McGurk effect, it remains unclear whether this region is critical only for this illusion or also for the more general benefits of congruent visual speech (e.g., increased accuracy and faster reaction times). Indeed, recent correlative research suggests that the benefits of congruent visual speech and the McGurk effect reflect largely independent mechanisms. To better understand how these different features of audiovisual integration are causally generated by the left pSTS, we used single-pulse TMS to temporarily impair processing while subjects were presented with either incongruent (McGurk) or congruent audiovisual combinations. Consistent with past research, we observed that TMS to the left pSTS significantly reduced the strength of the McGurk effect. Importantly, however, left pSTS stimulation did not affect the positive benefits of congruent audiovisual speech (increased accuracy and faster reaction times), demonstrating a causal dissociation between the two processes. Our results are consistent with models proposing that the pSTS is but one of multiple critical areas supporting audiovisual speech interactions. Moreover, these data add to a growing body of evidence suggesting that the McGurk effect is an imperfect surrogate measure for more general and ecologically valid audiovisual speech behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- EunSeon Ahn
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Areti Majumdar
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Taraz Lee
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - David Brang
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
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Mesquita RNO, Latella C, Ruas CV, Nosaka K, Taylor JL. Contraction Velocity of the Elbow Flexors Assessed by Tensiomyography: A Comparison Between Formulas. J Strength Cond Res 2023; 37:1969-1977. [PMID: 36946988 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Mesquita, RNO, Latella, C, Ruas, CV, Nosaka, K, and Taylor, JL. Contraction velocity of the elbow flexors assessed by tensiomyography: A comparison between formulas. J Strength Cond Res 37(10): 1969-1977, 2023-Muscle contraction velocity ( Vc ) assessed by tensiomyography is a promising measure for athlete profiling. Multiple formulas are used to estimate Vc , but the most suitable method is yet to be established. Fifteen adults (2 female subjects) underwent tensiomyography assessment of biceps brachii muscle at 10, 45 and 90° of elbow flexion on 2 separate days. Vc was calculated using 6 formulas. Formulas 1 and 2 are measures of the early phase of the twitch; Formulas 3-5 are measures over a wider time-window, with Formula 5 normalizing Vc to maximal displacement ( D m); and we proposed Formula 6 as a measure of peak Vc . Test-retest reliability, the required minimum number of trials, proportional bias, and effects of joint angle were investigated. Higher reliability (coefficient of variation: 2.8-6.9%) was found for Formula 1 (0-2 mm of displacement) and Formula 5 (normalized 10-90% of D m). Overall, a minimum of 6-7 trials was required to obtain reliable estimates. For 10° only, significant positive proportional bias ( r = 0.563-0.670) was found for all formulas except Formula 5. Vc was faster ( p < 0.001) at shorter muscle lengths for all formulas except Formula 5 ( p = 0.06). Vc in the early phase of the twitch was more reliable when calculated using absolute displacement (Formula 1) than a relative threshold (Formula 2). Over a larger time-window, Formulas 3 and 4 were similarly reliable. Because they are derived from different components of the twitch and different parameters, the different formulas should not be used interchangeably. Additionally, more precise nomenclature is required to describe the information obtained from each formula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo N O Mesquita
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Human Performance, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, Australia; and
| | - Christopher Latella
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Human Performance, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
| | - Cassio V Ruas
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Human Performance, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
- Brazilian Institute of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology-Institute of Physics Gleb Wataghin, University of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Kazunori Nosaka
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Human Performance, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
| | - Janet L Taylor
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Human Performance, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, Australia; and
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11
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Reader AT, Coppi S, Trifonova VS, Ehrsson HH. No reduction in motor-evoked potential amplitude during the rubber hand illusion. Brain Behav 2023; 13:e3211. [PMID: 37548563 PMCID: PMC10570491 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.3211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In the rubber hand illusion (RHI), touches are applied to a fake hand at the same time as touches are applied to a participant's real hand that is hidden in a congruent position. Synchronous (but not asynchronous) tactile stimulation of the two hands may induce the sensation that the fake hand is the participant's own. As such, the illusion is commonly used to examine the sense of body ownership. Some studies indicate that in addition to the subjective experience of limb ownership reported by participants, the RHI can also reduce corticospinal excitability (e.g., as reflected in motor-evoked potential [MEP] amplitude) and alter parietal-motor cortical connectivity in passive participants. These findings have been taken to support a link between motor cortical processing and the subjective experience of body ownership. METHODS In this study, we tried to replicate the reduction in MEP amplitude associated with the RHI and uncover the components of the illusion that might explain these changes. As such, we used single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation to probe the excitability of the corticospinal motor system as participants experienced the RHI. RESULTS Despite participants reporting the presence of the illusion and showing shifts in perceived real hand position towards the fake limb supporting its elicitation, we did not observe any associated reduction in MEP amplitude. CONCLUSION We conclude that a reduction in MEP amplitude is not a reliable outcome of the RHI and argue that if such effects do occur, they are unlikely to be large or functionally relevant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arran T. Reader
- Department of PsychologyFaculty of Natural SciencesUniversity of StirlingStirlingUK
- Department of NeuroscienceKarolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | - Sara Coppi
- Department of NeuroscienceKarolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
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12
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Osnabruegge M, Kanig C, Schwitzgebel F, Litschel K, Seiberl W, Mack W, Schecklmann M, Schoisswohl S. On the reliability of motor evoked potentials in hand muscles of healthy adults: a systematic review. Front Hum Neurosci 2023; 17:1237712. [PMID: 37719769 PMCID: PMC10500067 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1237712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Aims Motor evoked potentials (MEP) elicited by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the primary motor cortex are used as a neurophysiological marker of cortical excitability in clinical and scientific practice. Though, the reliability of this outcome parameter has not been clarified. Using a systematic approach, this work reviews and critically appraises studies on the reliability of MEP outcome parameters derived from hand muscles of healthy subjects and gives a proposal for most reliable TMS practice. Methods A systematic literature research was performed in PubMed, according to the PRISMA guidelines. Articles published up to March 2023 that were written in English, conducted repeated measurements from hand muscles of healthy subjects and reliability analysis were included. The risk of publication bias was determined. Two authors conducted the literature search and rated the articles in terms of eligibility and methodological criteria with standardized instruments. Frequencies of the checklist criteria were calculated and inter-rater reliability of the rating procedure was determined. Reliability and stimulation parameters were extracted and summarized in a structured way to conclude best-practice recommendation for reliable measurements. Results A total of 28 articles were included in the systematic review. Critical appraisal of the studies revealed methodological heterogeneity and partly contradictory results regarding the reliability of outcome parameters. Inter-rater reliability of the rating procedure was almost perfect nor was there indication of publication bias. Identified studies were grouped based on the parameter investigated: number of applied stimuli, stimulation intensity, reliability of input-output curve parameters, target muscle or hemisphere, inter-trial interval, coil type or navigation and waveform. Conclusion The methodology of studies on TMS is still subject to heterogeneity, which could contribute to the partly contradictory results. According to the current knowledge, reliability of the outcome parameters can be increased by adjusting the experimental setup. Reliability of single pulse MEP measurement could be optimized by using (1) at least five stimuli per session, (2) a minimum of 110% resting motor threshold as stimulation intensity, (3) a minimum of 4 s inter-trial interval and increasing the interval up to 20 s, (4) a figure-of-eight coil and (5) a monophasic waveform. MEPs can be reliably operationalized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirja Osnabruegge
- Institute of Psychology, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Neubiberg, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Carolina Kanig
- Institute of Psychology, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Neubiberg, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Florian Schwitzgebel
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Neubiberg, Germany
| | - Karsten Litschel
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Neubiberg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Seiberl
- Institute of Sport Science, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Neubiberg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Mack
- Institute of Psychology, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Neubiberg, Germany
| | - Martin Schecklmann
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Schoisswohl
- Institute of Psychology, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Neubiberg, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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13
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Seybert C, Cotovio G, Rodrigues da Silva D, Faro Viana F, Pereira P, Oliveira-Maia AJ. Replicability of motor cortex-excitability modulation by intermittent theta burst stimulation. Clin Neurophysiol 2023; 152:22-33. [PMID: 37269770 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2023.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) allows for cortical-excitability (CE) assessment and its modulation has been associated with neuroplasticity-like phenomena, thought to be impaired in neuropsychiatric disorders. However, the stability of these measures has been challenged, defying their potential as biomarkers. This study aimed to test the temporal stability of cortical-excitability modulation and study the impact of individual and methodological factors in determining within- and between-subject variability. METHODS We recruited healthy-subjects to assess motor cortex (MC) excitability modulation, collecting motor evoked potentials (MEP) from both hemispheres, before and after left-sided intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS), to obtain a measure of MEPs change (delta-MEPs). To assess stability across-time, the protocol was repeated after 6 weeks. Socio-demographic and psychological variables were collected to test association with delta-MEPs. RESULTS We found modulatory effects on left MC and not on right hemisphere following iTBS of left MC. Left delta-MEP was stable across-time when performed immediately after iTBS (ICC = 0.69), only when obtained first in left hemisphere. We discovered similar results in a replication cohort testing only left MC (ICC = 0.68). No meaningful associations were found between demographic and psychological factors and delta-MEPs. CONCLUSIONS Delta-MEP is stable immediately after modulation and not impacted by different individual factors, including expectation about TMS-effect. SIGNIFICANCE Motor cortex excitability modulation immediately after iTBS should be further explored as a potential biomarker for neuropsychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Seybert
- Champalimaud Research & Clinical Centre, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Gonçalo Cotovio
- Champalimaud Research & Clinical Centre, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal; NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal; Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Centro Hospitalar de Lisboa Ocidental, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Francisco Faro Viana
- Champalimaud Research & Clinical Centre, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal; Department of Physics, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Pereira
- Champalimaud Research & Clinical Centre, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal; Portuguese Red Cross Health School, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Albino J Oliveira-Maia
- Champalimaud Research & Clinical Centre, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal; NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.
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14
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Van Dam JM, Graetz L, Pitcher JB, Goldsworthy MR. The effects of age and biological sex on the association between I-wave recruitment and the response to cTBS: an exploratory study. Brain Res 2023; 1810:148359. [PMID: 37030620 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023]
Abstract
The neuroplastic response to continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) is inherently variable. The measurement of I-wave latencies has been shown to strongly predict the magnitude and direction of the response to cTBS, whereby longer latencies are associated with stronger long-term depression-like responses. However, potential differences in this association relating to age and sex have not been explored. We performed cTBS and measured I-wave recruitment (via MEP latencies) in 66 participants (31 female) ranging in age from 11 to 78 years. The influence of age and sex on the association between I-wave recruitment and the response to cTBS was tested using linear regression models. In contrast to previous studies, there was not a significant association between I-wave latencies and cTBS response at the group level (p = 0.142, R2 = 0.033). However, there were interactions between I-waves and both age and sex when predicting cTBS response. Subgroup analysis revealed that preferential late I-wave recruitment predicted cTBS response in adolescent females, but not in adolescent or adult males or adult females. These data suggest that the generalisability of I-wave measurement in predicting the response to cTBS may be lower than initially believed. Prediction models should include age and sex, rather than I-wave latencies alone, as our findings suggest that, while each factor alone is not a strong predictor, these factors interact to influence the response to cTBS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jago M Van Dam
- Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia; Lifespan Human Neurophysiology Group, School of Biomedicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia; Hopwood Centre for Neurobiology, Lifelong Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
| | - Lynton Graetz
- Lifespan Human Neurophysiology Group, School of Biomedicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia; Hopwood Centre for Neurobiology, Lifelong Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
| | - Julia B Pitcher
- Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia; Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3220, Australia
| | - Mitchell R Goldsworthy
- Lifespan Human Neurophysiology Group, School of Biomedicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia; Hopwood Centre for Neurobiology, Lifelong Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia.
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15
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Young KM, Rush JL, Lepley AS, Girmann AM, Norte GE. Intersession Reliability of Quadriceps Corticospinal Excitability: A Functional Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study. Brain Res 2023; 1808:148348. [PMID: 36972836 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
Recording transcranial magnetic stimulation-derived measures during a closed kinetic chain task can serve as a functional technique to assess corticomotor function, which may have implications for activities of daily living or lower extremity injury in physically active individuals. Given the novelty of TMS use in this way, our purpose was to first determine the intersession reliability of quadriceps corticospinal excitability during a single-leg squat. We used a descriptive laboratory study to assess 20 physically active females (22.1 ± 2.5 years, 1.7 ± 0.7 m, 66.3 ± 13.6 kg, Tegner Activity Scale: 5.90 ± 1.12) over a 14-day period. Two-way mixed effects Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (3,1) (ICC) for absolute agreement were used to assess intersession reliability. The active motor threshold (AMT) and normalized motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitudes were assessed in the vastus medialis of each limb. The dominant limb AMTs demonstrated moderate-to-good reliability (ICC = 0.771, 95% CI = 0.51-0.90; p < 0.001). The non-dominant limb AMTs (ICC = 0.364, 95% CI = 0.00-0.68, p = 0.047), dominant limb MEPs (ICC = 0.192, 95% CI = 0.00-0.71; p = 0.340), and non-dominant limb MEPs (ICC = 0.272, 95% CI = 0.00-0.71; p = 0.235) demonstrated poor-to-moderate reliability. These findings may provide insight into corticomotor function during activities requiring weight-bearing, single-leg movement. However, variability in agreement suggests further work is warranted to improve the standardization of this technique prior to incorporating in clinical outcomes research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiana M Young
- Department of Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health and Human Services, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States of America
| | - Justin L Rush
- Department of Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health and Human Services, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States of America.
| | - Adam S Lepley
- Exercise and Sport Science Initiative, School of Kinesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
| | - Adam M Girmann
- Department of Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health and Human Services, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States of America
| | - Grant E Norte
- Department of Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health and Human Services, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States of America
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16
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Su B, Jia Y, Zhang L, Li D, Shen Q, Wang C, Chen Y, Gao F, Wei J, Huang G, Liu H, Wang L. Reliability of TMS measurements using conventional hand-hold method with different numbers of stimuli for tibialis anterior muscle in healthy adults. Front Neural Circuits 2022; 16:986669. [PMID: 36247728 PMCID: PMC9563236 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2022.986669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: The objective of this study was to determine the reliability of corticomotor excitability measurements using the conventional hand-hold transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) method for the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle in healthy adults and the number of stimuli required for reliable assessment. Methods: Forty healthy adults participated in three repeated sessions of corticomotor excitability assessment in terms of resting motor threshold (rMT), slope of recruitment curve (RC), peak motor evoked potential amplitude (pMEP), and MEP latency using conventional TMS method. The first two sessions were conducted with a rest interval of 1 h, and the last session was conducted 7–10 days afterward. With the exception of rMT, the other three outcomes measure elicited with the block of first 3–10 stimuli were analyzed respectively. The within-day (session 1 vs. 2) and between-day (session 1 vs. 3) reliability for all four outcome measures were assessed using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), standard error of measurement, and minimum detectable difference at 95% confidence interval. Results: Good to excellent within-day and between-day reliability was found for TMS-induced outcome measures examined using 10 stimuli (ICC ≥ 0.823), except in pMEP, which showed between-day reliability at moderate level (ICC = 0.730). The number of three stimuli was adequate to achieve minimum acceptable within-day reliability for all TMS-induced parameters and between-day reliability for MEP latency. With regard to between-day reliability of RC slope and pMEP, at least seven and nine stimuli were recommended respectively. Conclusion: Our findings indicated the high reliability of corticomotor excitability measurement by TMS with adequate number of stimuli for the TA muscle in healthy adults. This result should be interpreted with caveats for the specific methodological choices, equipment setting, and the characteristics of the sample in the current study. Clinical Trial Registration:http://www.chictr.org.cn, identifier ChiCTR2100045141.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Su
- School of Exercise and Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Department of Rehabilitation, Wuxi Central Rehabilitation Hospital, Wuxi, China
| | - Yanbing Jia
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Jiangsu Vocational College of Medicine, Yancheng, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation, Wuxi Central Rehabilitation Hospital, Wuxi, China
| | - Duo Li
- Neuro-Rehabilitation Center, JORU Rehabilitation Hospital, Yixing, China
| | - Qianqian Shen
- Department of Rehabilitation, Wuxi Central Rehabilitation Hospital, Wuxi, China
| | - Chun Wang
- Neuro-Rehabilitation Center, JORU Rehabilitation Hospital, Yixing, China
| | - Yating Chen
- Department of Rehabilitation, Wuxi Central Rehabilitation Hospital, Wuxi, China
| | - Fanglan Gao
- Department of Rehabilitation, Wuxi Central Rehabilitation Hospital, Wuxi, China
| | - Jing Wei
- Neuro-Rehabilitation Center, JORU Rehabilitation Hospital, Yixing, China
| | - Guilan Huang
- Department of Rehabilitation, Wuxi Central Rehabilitation Hospital, Wuxi, China
| | - Hao Liu
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Jiangsu Vocational College of Medicine, Yancheng, China
- *Correspondence: Lin Wang Hao Liu
| | - Lin Wang
- School of Exercise and Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Lin Wang Hao Liu
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17
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Bierstedt L, Reider LB, Burris JL, Vallorani A, Gunther KE, Buss KA, Pérez-Edgar K, LoBue V. Bi-directional relations between attention and social fear across the first two years of life. Infant Behav Dev 2022; 69:101750. [PMID: 36027626 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2022.101750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This study examined longitudinal relations between attention and social fear across the first two years of life. Our sample consisted of 357 infants and their caregivers across three sites. Data was collected at 4, 8, 12, 18, and 24 months of age. At all 5 assessments, the infants participated in 2 eye-tracking tasks (Vigilance and Overlap) which measured different components of attention bias (orientation, engagement, and disengagement), and parents completed questionnaires assessing infant temperament. For the first three assessments, social fear was measured using the Infant Behavioral Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R; Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003) focused on interactions with strangers, and for the final two time points, we used the social fearfulness subscale on the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (TBAQ; Goldsmith, 1996). The results of a random intercept cross-lagged panel model showed intermittent evidence of uni-directional and reciprocal relations between attention to both threatening and positive emotion facial configurations and social fear. Our findings suggest that characteristics of behaviorally inhibited temperament-in this case, social fear-begin to interact with attention biases to emotion in the very first year of life, which carries implications for the timing of future interventions designed to mitigate the early development of maladaptive patterns of attention.
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18
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Reider LB, Bierstedt L, Burris JL, Vallorani A, Gunther K, Buss KA, Pérez‐Edgar K, Field AP, LoBue V. Developmental patterns of affective attention across the first 2 years of life. Child Dev 2022; 93:e607-e621. [PMID: 35904130 PMCID: PMC9796239 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
This study examined patterns of attention toward affective stimuli in a longitudinal sample of typically developing infants (N = 357, 147 females, 50% White, 22% Latinx, 16% African American/Black, 3% Asian, 8% mixed race, 1% not reported) using two eye-tracking tasks that measure vigilance to (rapid detection), engagement with (total looking toward), and disengagement from (latency to looking away) emotional facial configurations. Infants completed each task at 4, 8, 12, 18, and 24 months of age from 2016 to 2020. Multilevel growth models demonstrate that, over the first 2 years of life, infants became faster at detecting and spent more time engaging with angry over neutral faces. These results have implications for our understanding of the development of affect-biased attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori B. Reider
- Department of PsychologyRutgers UniversityNewarkNew JerseyUSA
| | - Laura Bierstedt
- Department of PsychologyRutgers UniversityNewarkNew JerseyUSA
| | | | - Alicia Vallorani
- Department of PsychologyPennsylvania State UniversityState CollegePennsylvaniaUSA
| | | | - Kristin A. Buss
- Department of PsychologyPennsylvania State UniversityState CollegePennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Koraly Pérez‐Edgar
- Department of PsychologyPennsylvania State UniversityState CollegePennsylvaniaUSA
| | | | - Vanessa LoBue
- Department of PsychologyRutgers UniversityNewarkNew JerseyUSA
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19
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Betti S, Fedele M, Castiello U, Sartori L, Budisavljević S. Corticospinal excitability and conductivity are related to the anatomy of the corticospinal tract. Brain Struct Funct 2021; 227:1155-1164. [PMID: 34698904 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-021-02410-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Probing the brain structure-function relationship is at the heart of modern neuroscientific explorations, enabled by recent advances in brain mapping techniques. This study aimed to explore the anatomical blueprint of corticospinal excitability and shed light on the structure-function relationship within the human motor system. Using diffusion magnetic resonance imaging tractography, based on the spherical deconvolution approach, and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), we show that anatomical inter-individual variability of the corticospinal tract (CST) modulates the corticospinal excitability and conductivity. Our findings show for the first time the relationship between increased corticospinal excitability and conductivity in individuals with a bigger CST (i.e., number of streamlines), as well as increased corticospinal microstructural organization (i.e., fractional anisotropy). These findings can have important implications for the understanding of the neuroanatomical basis of TMS as well as the study of the human motor system in both health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Betti
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
| | - Marta Fedele
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven Kulak, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Umberto Castiello
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Luisa Sartori
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.,Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Sanja Budisavljević
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.,School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
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20
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Geffen A, Bland N, Sale MV. Effects of Slow Oscillatory Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation on Motor Cortical Excitability Assessed by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:726604. [PMID: 34588969 PMCID: PMC8473706 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.726604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Converging evidence suggests that transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) may entrain endogenous neural oscillations to match the frequency and phase of the exogenously applied current and this entrainment may outlast the stimulation (although only for a few oscillatory cycles following the cessation of stimulation). However, observing entrainment in the electroencephalograph (EEG) during stimulation is extremely difficult due to the presence of complex tACS artifacts. The present study assessed entrainment to slow oscillatory (SO) tACS by measuring motor cortical excitability across different oscillatory phases during (i.e., online) and outlasting (i.e., offline) stimulation. 30 healthy participants received 60 trials of intermittent SO tACS (0.75 Hz; 16 s on/off interleaved) at an intensity of 2 mA peak-to-peak. Motor cortical excitability was assessed using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the hand region of the primary motor cortex (M1HAND) to induce motor evoked potentials (MEPs) in the contralateral thumb. MEPs were acquired at four time-points within each trial – early online, late online, early offline, and late offline – as well as at the start and end of the overall stimulation period (to probe longer-lasting aftereffects of tACS). A significant increase in MEP amplitude was observed from pre- to post-tACS (paired-sample t-test; t29 = 2.64, P = 0.013, d = 0.48) and from the first to the last tACS block (t29 = −2.93, P = 0.02, d = 0.54). However, no phase-dependent modulation of excitability was observed. Therefore, although SO tACS had a facilitatory effect on motor cortical excitability that outlasted stimulation, there was no evidence supporting entrainment of endogenous oscillations as the underlying mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asher Geffen
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Nicholas Bland
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.,Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.,School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Martin V Sale
- School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.,Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
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21
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Takenaka Y, Suzuki T, Sugawara K. Time course effect of corticospinal excitability for motor imagery. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 54:6123-6134. [PMID: 34328240 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the effect of temporal changes in corticospinal excitability in motor imagery (MI) and the effect of real-time guides for MI on excitability changes. The MI task involved wrist flexion and motor evoked potentials using transcranial magnetic stimulation were recorded and examined from the flexor carpi radialis. Ballistic (momentary MI) and tonic (continuous MI) conditions were used, and the duration of each MI was different. In Experiment 1, each MI task was performed using an acoustic trigger. In Experiment 2, a real-time guide was presented on a computer screen, which provided a visual indication of the onset and duration of the MI task through via moving dots on the screen. The results indicate that the corticospinal excitability changed differently, depending on the duration of MI. Additionally, with real-time guides, the change in corticospinal excitability became clearer. Thus, corticospinal excitability changes due to the temporal specificities of MI, as well as with actual motor output. Moreover, if MI is actively performed without a guide, it is likely to show an unintended change in corticospinal excitability. It is suggested that when MI is performed with visual guide, the excitatory changes of the corticospinal tract might be different from the actual motor output. Therefore, when using MI for mental practices, it is possible to improve the effect of a guide for MI, such as a visual indicator for motor output. Additionally, when examining neural activities in MI, it may be necessary to consider the characteristics of motion performed by MI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuma Takenaka
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Tomotaka Suzuki
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kenichi Sugawara
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan
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22
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Van Hoornweder S, Debeuf R, Verstraelen S, Meesen R, Cuypers K. Unravelling Ipsilateral Interactions Between Left Dorsal Premotor and Primary Motor Cortex: A Proof of Concept Study. Neuroscience 2021; 466:36-46. [PMID: 33971265 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Few studies have identified the intrahemispheric functional connectivity between the ipsilateral dorsal premotor cortex (PMd) and the primary motor hand area (M1hand) due to technical limitations. In this proof-of-concept study, a novel neuronavigated dsTMS set-up was employed, combining stimulation over left PMd and left M1hand using the edge of a butterfly coil and a small cooled-coil. This arrangement was warranted because coil (over)heating and inter coil distance are limiting factors when investigating connectivity between stimulation targets in close proximity and over a longer duration. The proposed set-up was designed to deal with these limitations. Specifically, the effect of four dual-site transcranial magnetic stimulation (dsTMS) protocols on twenty-eight right-handed participants (12 males) was evaluated. These protocols differed in stimulus order, interstimulus interval and current direction induced in PMd. A structural scan with electric (E-)field modeling was obtained from seven participants prior to dsTMS, demonstrating that PMd and M1hand were effectively stimulated. Results indicate that one protocol, in which a latero-medial current was induced in PMd 2.8 ms prior to stimulation over M1hand, induced a sex-mediated effect. In males, significant inhibition of motor-evoked potentials was identified, whereas females demonstrated a facilitatory effect that did not survive correction for multiple comparisons. E-field simulations revealed that the E-field induced by the coil targeting PMd was maximal in PMd, with weaker E-field strengths extending to regions beyond PMd. Summarizing, the current dsTMS set-up enabled stimulating at an inter-target distance of 35 mm without any indications of coil-overheating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sybren Van Hoornweder
- Neuroplasticity and Movement Control Research Group, Rehabilitation Research Institute (REVAL), Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium; Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, Group Biomedical Sciences, KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Ruben Debeuf
- Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, Group Biomedical Sciences, KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium; Rehabilitation Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Stefanie Verstraelen
- Neuroplasticity and Movement Control Research Group, Rehabilitation Research Institute (REVAL), Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Raf Meesen
- Neuroplasticity and Movement Control Research Group, Rehabilitation Research Institute (REVAL), Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Koen Cuypers
- Neuroplasticity and Movement Control Research Group, Rehabilitation Research Institute (REVAL), Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium; Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, Department of Movement Sciences, Group Biomedical Sciences, KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium.
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23
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Alder G, Signal N, Vandal AC, Olsen S, Jochumsen M, Niazi IK, Taylor D. Investigating the Intervention Parameters of Endogenous Paired Associative Stimulation (ePAS). Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11020224. [PMID: 33673171 PMCID: PMC7918620 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11020224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in our understanding of neural plasticity have prompted the emergence of neuromodulatory interventions, which modulate corticomotor excitability (CME) and hold potential for accelerating stroke recovery. Endogenous paired associative stimulation (ePAS) involves the repeated pairing of a single pulse of peripheral electrical stimulation (PES) with endogenous movement-related cortical potentials (MRCPs), which are derived from electroencephalography. However, little is known about the optimal parameters for its delivery. A factorial design with repeated measures delivered four different versions of ePAS, in which PES intensities and movement type were manipulated. Linear mixed models were employed to assess interaction effects between PES intensity (suprathreshold (Hi) and motor threshold (Lo)) and movement type (Voluntary and Imagined) on CME. ePAS interventions significantly increased CME compared to control interventions, except in the case of Lo-Voluntary ePAS. There was an overall main effect for the Hi-Voluntary ePAS intervention immediately post-intervention (p = 0.002), with a sub-additive interaction effect at 30 min’ post-intervention (p = 0.042). Hi-Imagined and Lo-Imagined ePAS significantly increased CME for 30 min post-intervention (p = 0.038 and p = 0.043 respectively). The effects of the two PES intensities were not significantly different. CME was significantly greater after performing imagined movements, compared to voluntary movements, with motor threshold PES (Lo) 15 min post-intervention (p = 0.012). This study supports previous research investigating Lo-Imagined ePAS and extends those findings by illustrating that ePAS interventions that deliver suprathreshold intensities during voluntary or imagined movements (Hi-Voluntary and Hi-Imagined) also increase CME. Importantly, our findings indicate that stimulation intensity and movement type interact in ePAS interventions. Factorial designs are an efficient way to explore the effects of manipulating the parameters of neuromodulatory interventions. Further research is required to ensure that these parameters are appropriately refined to maximise intervention efficacy for people with stroke and to support translation into clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Alder
- Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0627, New Zealand; (N.S.); (S.O.); (I.K.N.); (D.T.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Nada Signal
- Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0627, New Zealand; (N.S.); (S.O.); (I.K.N.); (D.T.)
| | - Alain C. Vandal
- Department of Statistics, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand;
- Ko Awatea, Counties Manukau Health, Auckland 2025, New Zealand
| | - Sharon Olsen
- Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0627, New Zealand; (N.S.); (S.O.); (I.K.N.); (D.T.)
| | - Mads Jochumsen
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark;
| | - Imran Khan Niazi
- Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0627, New Zealand; (N.S.); (S.O.); (I.K.N.); (D.T.)
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark;
- Centre for Chiropractic Research, New Zealand College of Chiropractic, Auckland 1060, New Zealand
| | - Denise Taylor
- Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0627, New Zealand; (N.S.); (S.O.); (I.K.N.); (D.T.)
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24
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Ammann C, Guida P, Caballero-Insaurriaga J, Pineda-Pardo JA, Oliviero A, Foffani G. A framework to assess the impact of number of trials on the amplitude of motor evoked potentials. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21422. [PMID: 33293541 PMCID: PMC7722939 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-77383-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The amplitude of motor evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a common yet highly variable measure of corticospinal excitability. The tradeoff between maximizing the number of trials and minimizing experimental time remains a hurdle. It is therefore important to establish how many trials should be used. The aim of this study is not to provide rule-of-thumb answers that may be valid only in specific experimental conditions, but to offer a more general framework to inform the decision about how many trials to use under different experimental conditions. Specifically, we present a set of equations that show how the number of trials affects single-subject MEP amplitude, population MEP amplitude, hypothesis testing and test-retest reliability, depending on the variability within and between subjects. The equations are derived analytically, validated with Monte Carlo simulations, and representatively applied to experimental data. Our findings show that the minimum number of trials for estimating single-subject MEP amplitude largely depends on the experimental conditions and on the error considered acceptable by the experimenter. Conversely, estimating population MEP amplitude and hypothesis testing are markedly more dependent on the number of subjects than on the number of trials. These tools and results help to clarify the impact of the number of trials in the design and reproducibility of past and future experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Ammann
- HM CINAC, Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Universidad CEU-San Pablo, Madrid, Spain
- CIBERNED, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pasqualina Guida
- HM CINAC, Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Universidad CEU-San Pablo, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - José A Pineda-Pardo
- HM CINAC, Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Universidad CEU-San Pablo, Madrid, Spain
- CIBERNED, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Guglielmo Foffani
- HM CINAC, Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Universidad CEU-San Pablo, Madrid, Spain.
- CIBERNED, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
- Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, Toledo, Spain.
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25
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Hupfeld KE, Swanson CW, Fling BW, Seidler RD. TMS-induced silent periods: A review of methods and call for consistency. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 346:108950. [PMID: 32971133 PMCID: PMC8276277 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)-induced silent periods provide an in vivo measure of human motor cortical inhibitory function. Cortical silent periods (cSP, also sometimes referred to as contralateral silent periods) and ipsilateral silent periods (iSP) may change with advancing age and disease and can provide insight into cortical control of the motor system. The majority of past silent period work has implemented largely varying methodology, sometimes including subjective analyses and incomplete methods descriptions. This limits reproducibility of silent period work and hampers comparisons of silent period measures across studies. Here, we discuss methodological differences in past silent period work, highlighting how these choices affect silent period outcome measures. We also outline challenges and possible solutions for measuring silent periods in the unique case of the lower limbs. Finally, we provide comprehensive recommendations for collection, analysis, and reporting of future silent period studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- K E Hupfeld
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - C W Swanson
- Department of Health & Exercise Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - B W Fling
- Department of Health & Exercise Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA; Molecular, Cellular, and Integrative Neuroscience Program, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - R D Seidler
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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26
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Tran DMD, McNair NA, Harris JA, Livesey EJ. Expected TMS excites the motor system less effectively than unexpected stimulation. Neuroimage 2020; 226:117541. [PMID: 33186721 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain's response to sensory input is modulated by prediction. For example, sounds that are produced by one's own actions, or those that are strongly predicted by environmental cues, elicit an attenuated N1 component in the auditory evoked potential. It has been suggested that this form of sensory attenuation to stimulation produced by one's own actions is the reason we are unable to tickle ourselves. Here we examined whether the neural response to direct stimulation of the brain is attenuated by prediction in a similar manner. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) applied over primary motor cortex can be used to gauge the excitability of the motor system. Motor-evoked potentials (MEPs), elicited by TMS and measured in peripheral muscles, are larger when actions are being prepared and smaller when actions are voluntarily suppressed. We tested whether the amplitude of MEPs was attenuated under circumstances where the TMS pulse can be reliably predicted, even though control of the relevant motor effector was never required. Self-initiation of the TMS pulse and reliable cuing of the TMS pulse both produced attenuated MEP amplitudes, compared to those generated programmatically in an unpredictable manner. These results suggest that predictive coding may be governed by domain-general mechanisms responsible for all forms predictive learning. The findings also have important methodological implications for designing TMS experiments that control for the predictability of TMS pulses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Evan J Livesey
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Australia
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27
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Ermer E, Harcum S, Lush J, Magder LS, Whitall J, Wittenberg GF, Dimyan MA. Contraction Phase and Force Differentially Change Motor Evoked Potential Recruitment Slope and Interhemispheric Inhibition in Young Versus Old. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:581008. [PMID: 33132888 PMCID: PMC7573560 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.581008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Interhemispheric interactions are important for arm coordination and hemispheric specialization. Unilateral voluntary static contraction is known to increase bilateral corticospinal motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude. It is unknown how increasing and decreasing contraction affect the opposite limb. Since dynamic muscle contraction is more ecologically relevant to daily activities, we studied MEP recruitment using a novel method and short interval interhemispheric inhibition (IHI) from active to resting hemisphere at 4 phases of contralateral ECR contraction: Rest, Ramp Up [increasing at 25% of maximum voluntary contraction (MVC)], Execution (tonic at 50% MVC), and Ramp Down (relaxation at 25% MVC) in 42 healthy adults. We analyzed the linear portion of resting extensor carpi radialis (ECR) MEP recruitment by stimulating at multiple intensities and comparing slopes, expressed as mV per TMS stimulation level, via linear mixed modeling. In younger participants (age ≤ 30), resting ECR MEP recruitment slopes were significantly and equally larger both at Ramp Up (slope increase = 0.047, p < 0.001) and Ramp Down (slope increase = 0.031, p < 0.001) compared to rest, despite opposite directions of force change. In contrast, Active ECR MEP recruitment slopes were larger in Ramp Down than all other phases (Rest:0.184, p < 0.001; Ramp Up:0.128, p = 0.001; Execution: p = 0.003). Older (age ≥ 60) participants’ resting MEP recruitment slope was higher than younger participants across all phases. IHI did not reduce MEP recruitment slope equally in old compared to young. In conclusion, our data indicate that MEP recruitment slope in the resting limb is affected by the homologous active limb contraction force, irrespective of the direction of force change. The active arm MEP recruitment slope, in contrast, remains relatively unaffected. Older participants had steeper MEP recruitment slopes and less interhemispheric inhibition compared to younger participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa Ermer
- University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Stacey Harcum
- University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jaime Lush
- University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Laurence S Magder
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jill Whitall
- University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - George F Wittenberg
- University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Michael A Dimyan
- University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States
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28
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Cuypers K, Marsman A. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and magnetic resonance spectroscopy: Opportunities for a bimodal approach in human neuroscience. Neuroimage 2020; 224:117394. [PMID: 32987106 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last decade, there has been an increasing number of studies combining transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). MRS provides a manner to non-invasively investigate molecular concentrations in the living brain and thus identify metabolites involved in physiological and pathological processes. Particularly the MRS-detectable metabolites glutamate, the major excitatory neurotransmitter, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the major inhibitory neurotransmitter, are of interest when combining TMS and MRS. TMS is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that can be applied either as a neuromodulation or neurostimulation tool, specifically targeting glutamatergic and GABAergic mechanisms. The combination of TMS and MRS can be used to evaluate alterations in brain metabolite levels following an interventional TMS protocol such as repetitive TMS (rTMS) or paired associative stimulation (PAS). MRS can also be combined with a variety of non-interventional TMS protocols to identify the interplay between brain metabolite levels and measures of excitability or receptor-mediated inhibition and facilitation. In this review, we provide an overview of studies performed in healthy and patient populations combining MRS and TMS, both as a measurement tool and as an intervention. TMS and MRS may reveal complementary and comprehensive information on glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission. Potentially, connectivity changes and dedicated network interactions can be probed using the combined TMS-MRS approach. Considering the ongoing technical developments in both fields, combined studies hold future promise for investigations of brain network interactions and neurotransmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koen Cuypers
- Department of Movement Sciences, Group Biomedical Sciences, Movement Control & Neuroplasticity Research Group, KU Leuven, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium; REVAL Research Institute, Hasselt University, Agoralaan, Building A, 3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Anouk Marsman
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Section 714, Kettegård Allé 30, 26500 Hvidovre, Denmark.
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29
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Castricum J, Tulen JHM, Taal W, Ottenhoff MJ, Kushner SA, Elgersma Y. Motor cortical excitability and plasticity in patients with neurofibromatosis type 1. Clin Neurophysiol 2020; 131:2673-2681. [PMID: 32977190 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2020.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder that is associated with cognitive disabilities. Based on studies involving animals, the hypothesized cause of these disabilities results from increased activity of inhibitory interneurons that decreases synaptic plasticity. We obtained transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)-based measures of cortical inhibition, excitability and plasticity in individuals with NF1. METHODS We included 32 NF1 adults and 32 neurotypical controls. Cortical inhibition was measured with short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) and cortical silent period (CSP). Excitability and plasticity were studied with intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS). RESULTS The SICI and CSP response did not differ between NF1 adults and controls. The response upon iTBS induction was significantly increased in controls (70%) and in NF1 adults (83%). This potentiation lasted longer in controls than in individuals with NF1. Overall, the TMS response was significantly lower in NF1 patients (F(1, 41) = 7.552, p = 0.009). CONCLUSIONS Individuals with NF1 may have reduced excitability and plasticity, as indicated by their lower TMS response and attenuation of the initial potentiated response upon iTBS induction. However, our findings did not provide evidence for increased inhibition in NF1 patients. SIGNIFICANCE These findings have potential utility as neurophysiological outcome measures for intervention studies to treat cognitive deficits associated with NF1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesminne Castricum
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; ENCORE Expertise Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Joke H M Tulen
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; ENCORE Expertise Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Walter Taal
- ENCORE Expertise Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Neurology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Myrthe J Ottenhoff
- ENCORE Expertise Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Steven A Kushner
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; ENCORE Expertise Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ype Elgersma
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; ENCORE Expertise Center for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
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30
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Deficits in corticospinal control of stretch reflex thresholds in stroke: Implications for motor impairment. Clin Neurophysiol 2020; 131:2067-2078. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2020.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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31
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Bashir S, Ahmad S, Alatefi M, Hamza A, Sharaf M, Fecteau S, Yoo WK. Effects of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation on motor evoked potentials variability in humans. Physiol Rep 2020; 7:e14087. [PMID: 31301123 PMCID: PMC6640590 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) obtained from transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) allow corticospinal excitability (CSE) to be measured in the human primary motor cortex (M1). CSE responses to transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) protocols are highly variable. Here, we tested the reproducibility and reliability of individual MEPs following a common anodal tDCS protocol. In this study, 32 healthy subjects received anodal tDCS stimulation over the left M1 for three durations (tDCS‐T5, tDCS‐T10, and tDCS‐T20 min) on separate days in a crossover‐randomized order. After the resting motor threshold (RMT) was determined for the contralateral first dorsal interosseous muscle, 15 single pulses 4–8 sec apart at an intensity of 120% RMT were delivered to the left M1 to determine the baseline MEP amplitude at T0, T5, T10, T20, T30, T40, T50, and T60 min after stimulation for each durations. During TMS delivery, 3D images of the participant's cortex and hot spot were visualized for obtaining MEPs from same position. Our findings revealed that there was a significant MEPs improvement at T0 (P = 0.01) after 10 min of anodal stimulation. After the 20‐min stimulation duration, MEPs differed specifically at T0, T5, T30 min (P < 0.05). This indicates that tDCS is a promising tool to improve MEPs. Our observed variability in response to the tDCS protocol is consistent with other noninvasive brain stimulation studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahid Bashir
- Neuroscience Center, King Fahad Specialist Hospital Dammam, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shafiq Ahmad
- Department of Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Moath Alatefi
- Department of Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ali Hamza
- Department of Electrical Engineering, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Mohamed Sharaf
- Department of Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Woo Kyoung Yoo
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Hallym University Sacred Heart Hospital, Anyang, South Korea.,Hallym Institute for Translational Genomics & Bioinformatics, Hallym University Sacred Heart Hospital, Anyang, South Korea
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32
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Hassanzahraee M, Zoghi M, Jaberzadeh S. Longer Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Intertrial Interval Increases Size, Reduces Variability, and Improves the Reliability of Motor Evoked Potentials. Brain Connect 2020; 9:770-776. [PMID: 31744309 DOI: 10.1089/brain.2019.0714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
High rates of variability in the amplitude of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)-induced motor evoked potentials (MEPs), a popular method for assessing corticospinal excitability (CSE), make it essential to examine inherent reliability of the MEP amplitude. We aimed to investigate the effects of different intertrial intervals (ITIs) of single-pulse TMS on the amplitude, variability, and test-retest reliability of MEPs. Twenty-five TMS single pulses were recorded at four different ITIs of 5, 10, 15, and 20 sec from 15 healthy participants who attended two experimental sessions. Repeated measures analysis of variance (rmANOVA) and standardized z-value standard deviations (SDs) were used to investigate the effects of ITIs on MEP amplitudes and variability. Test-retest reliability of MEP amplitudes was also assessed using rmANOVA and intraclass correlation (ICC). rmANOVA revealed significantly larger MEP amplitudes following ITIs of 10, 15, and 20 sec compared with ITI 5, with no significant increases between ITIs of 15 and 20 sec. Standardized z-value SDs revealed variability rate reduction following longer ITIs with significant reductions occurring following ITIs of 10, 15, and 20 sec compared with ITI 5 with no significant difference between ITIs of 15 and 20 sec. rmANOVA showed no significant Time main effect on the MEP changes confirming within- and between-session agreement. ICCs reported significant within- and between-session reliability in all selected ITIs. The findings of the current study indicate that longer ITIs up to 15 sec can significantly induce larger MEPs with lower variability and higher reliability. The increase in ITIs not only reduces the chance of TMS-induced changes in CSE but also helps us to use this assessment tool in studies with smaller sample sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Hassanzahraee
- Noninvasive Brain Stimulation and Neuroplasticity Laboratory, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Maryam Zoghi
- Department of Rehabilitation, Nutrition and Sport, School of Allied Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Shapour Jaberzadeh
- Noninvasive Brain Stimulation and Neuroplasticity Laboratory, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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33
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Bashir S, Aisha D, Hamza A, Al-Hussain F, Yoo WK. Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on cortex modulation by stimulation of the primary motor cortex and parietal cortex in humans. Int J Neurosci 2020; 131:1107-1114. [PMID: 32462947 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2020.1775594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used to measure corticospinal excitability (CSE) from the primary motor cortex (M1) in humans through motor-evoked potentials (MEPs). The variability of CSE responses to transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) protocols is high and needs to be reproduced in the healthy population. The M1 and posterior parietal cortex (PPC) are anatomically and functionally connected and could play a role in understanding the variability in CSE responses. We tested the individual MEPs following a common cathodal (ctDCS) protocol over the M1 and PPC. MATERIALS AND METHODS Twenty-eight healthy subjects were randomized for a ctDCS stimulation over the left M1 and PPC for 20 min on a separate days. The first dorsal interosseous muscle (FDI) contralateral stimulation of the left M1 was used as the resting motor threshold (RMT), while 15 single pulses 4-8 s apart at an intensity of 120% RMT were used to determine the baseline MEP amplitude and at T0, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 min after ctDCS stimulation in both sessions. RESULTS A 20 min duration of ctDCS stimulation significantly deceased the CSE only at T0 (p = 0.046 at M1, p = 0.010 at PPC). CONCLUSION Our results suggested that PPC stimulation can modulate M1 excitability and PPC-M1 connectivity, but a significant effect is only observed immediately post ctDCS. The tDCS showed variability in response to the tDCS protocol is consistent with other non-invasive brain stimulation studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahid Bashir
- Neuroscience Center, King Fahad Specialist Hospital Dammam, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Dowihi Aisha
- Neuroscience Center, King Fahad Specialist Hospital Dammam, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ali Hamza
- Department of Electrical Engineering, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Fawaz Al-Hussain
- Division of Neurology, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Woo-Kyoung Yoo
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Hallym University College of Medicine, Anyang, South Korea.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Hallym University Sacred Heart Hospital, Hallym University College of Medicine, Anyang, South Korea
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34
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Lorenz S, Alex B, Kammer T. Ten minutes of transcranial static magnetic field stimulation does not reliably modulate motor cortex excitability. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0233614. [PMID: 32453767 PMCID: PMC7250443 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, modulatory effects of static magnetic field stimulation (tSMS) on excitability of the motor cortex have been reported. In our previous study we failed to replicate these results. It was suggested that the lack of modulatory effects was due to the use of an auditory oddball task in our study. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the role of an oddball task on the effects of tSMS on motor cortex excitability. In a within-subject-design we compared 10 minutes tSMS with and without oddball task. In one of the two sessions subjects had to solve an auditory oddball task during the exposure to the magnet, whereas there was no task during exposure in the other session. Motor cortex excitability was measured before and after tSMS. No modulation was observed in any condition. However, when data were pooled regarding the order of the sessions, a trend for an increase of excitability was observed in the first session compared to the second session. We now can rule out that the auditory oddball task destroys tSMS effects, as postulated. Our results rather suggest that fluctuations in the amplitudes of single pulse motor evoked potentials may possibly mask weak modulatory effects but may also lead to false positive results if the number of subjects in a study is too low. In addition, there might be a habituation effect to the whole procedure, resulting in less variability when subjects underwent the same experiment twice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Lorenz
- Department of Psychiatry, Section for Neurostimulation, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Birte Alex
- Department of Psychiatry, Section for Neurostimulation, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Thomas Kammer
- Department of Psychiatry, Section for Neurostimulation, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
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A Systematic Review of Closed-Loop Feedback Techniques in Sleep Studies-Related Issues and Future Directions. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20102770. [PMID: 32414060 PMCID: PMC7285770 DOI: 10.3390/s20102770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Advances in computer processing technology have enabled researchers to analyze real-time brain activity and build real-time closed-loop paradigms. In many fields, the effectiveness of these closed-loop protocols has proven to be better than that of the simple open-loop paradigms. Recently, sleep studies have attracted much attention as one possible application of closed-loop paradigms. To date, several studies that used closed-loop paradigms have been reported in the sleep-related literature and recommend a closed-loop feedback system to enhance specific brain activity during sleep, which leads to improvements in sleep's effects, such as memory consolidation. However, to the best of our knowledge, no report has reviewed and discussed the detailed technical issues that arise in designing sleep closed-loop paradigms. In this paper, we reviewed the most recent reports on sleep closed-loop paradigms and offered an in-depth discussion of some of their technical issues. We found 148 journal articles strongly related with 'sleep and stimulation' and reviewed 20 articles on closed-loop feedback sleep studies. We focused on human sleep studies conducting any modality of feedback stimulation. Then we introduced the main component of the closed-loop system and summarized several open-source libraries, which are widely used in closed-loop systems, with step-by-step guidelines for closed-loop system implementation for sleep. Further, we proposed future directions for sleep research with closed-loop feedback systems, which provide some insight into closed-loop feedback systems.
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Park I, Buchanan JJ, McCulloch AT, Chen J, Wright DL. Motor and spatial representations of action: corticospinal excitability in M1 after training with a bimanual skill. Exp Brain Res 2020; 238:1191-1202. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-020-05795-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Bruton AM, Holmes PS, Eaves DL, Franklin ZC, Wright DJ. Neurophysiological markers discriminate different forms of motor imagery during action observation. Cortex 2020; 124:119-136. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2019.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Vergallito A, Lo Gerfo E, Varoli E, Brambilla M, Sacchi S, Anzani S, Romero Lauro LJ. Positive self-perception and corticospinal excitability: Recalling positive behavior expands peripersonal space boundaries. Neuropsychologia 2019; 135:107224. [PMID: 31604069 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Converging evidence suggests that peripersonal space has dynamic properties, that can be influenced by motor and cognitive factors. Here, we investigated whether changes in self-perception may impact upon peripersonal representation. Specifically, employing non-invasive brain stimulation, we tested whether corticospinal excitability elicited by objects placed in the vertical peripersonal vs extrapersonal space can be influenced by changes in self-perception after recalling a personal experience inducing the feeling of high power (vs. positivity vs. low power). In a preliminary study (Study 1, N = 39) participants were presented with an object, whose position was manipulated in the horizontal vs vertical space. We assessed corticospinal excitability by measuring Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs) using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation with Electromyography co-registration (TMS-EMG). In the horizontal condition, we replicated the well-known motor facilitation induced by objects falling in the peri vs extrapersonal space, while in the vertical dimension MEPs were higher in the extrapersonal space. In the main experiment (Study 2), participants (N = 55) were randomly assigned to feel high power, low power, or a general positive emotion and were asked to observe the same object positioned either in the peripersonal or in the extrapersonal vertical space. Results showed that in the low power condition MEPs were higher in the extrapersonal vs peripersonal, as in Study 1, while in high power and positive conditions MEPs were not influenced by distance. Taken together, our findings suggest a dissociable pattern of motor facilitation underlying vertical vs horizontal space perception and, crucially, that changes in self-perception can influence such a representation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Vergallito
- University of Milano Bicocca, Department of Psychology, Italy
| | - E Lo Gerfo
- Clinical Psychology Service of Mediterranean Institute for Transplantation and Advanced Specialized Therapies (IRCSS IsMeTT) Palermo, Italy; NeuroMI - Milan Center for Neuroscience, Italy
| | - E Varoli
- Clinical Psychology Service of Mediterranean Institute for Transplantation and Advanced Specialized Therapies (IRCSS IsMeTT) Palermo, Italy; University of Milano Bicocca, Department of Medicine and Surgery, Italy
| | - M Brambilla
- University of Milano Bicocca, Department of Psychology, Italy
| | - S Sacchi
- University of Milano Bicocca, Department of Psychology, Italy
| | - S Anzani
- University of Chieti-Pescara "G. D'Annunzio", Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, Italy
| | - L J Romero Lauro
- University of Milano Bicocca, Department of Psychology, Italy; NeuroMI - Milan Center for Neuroscience, Italy.
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Ohashi H, Gribble PL, Ostry DJ. Somatosensory cortical excitability changes precede those in motor cortex during human motor learning. J Neurophysiol 2019; 122:1397-1405. [PMID: 31390294 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00383.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor learning is associated with plasticity in both motor and somatosensory cortex. It is known from animal studies that tetanic stimulation to each of these areas individually induces long-term potentiation in its counterpart. In this context it is possible that changes in motor cortex contribute to somatosensory change and that changes in somatosensory cortex are involved in changes in motor areas of the brain. It is also possible that learning-related plasticity occurs in these areas independently. To better understand the relative contribution to human motor learning of motor cortical and somatosensory plasticity, we assessed the time course of changes in primary somatosensory and motor cortex excitability during motor skill learning. Learning was assessed using a force production task in which a target force profile varied from one trial to the next. The excitability of primary somatosensory cortex was measured using somatosensory evoked potentials in response to median nerve stimulation. The excitability of primary motor cortex was measured using motor evoked potentials elicited by single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation. These two measures were interleaved with blocks of motor learning trials. We found that the earliest changes in cortical excitability during learning occurred in somatosensory cortical responses, and these changes preceded changes in motor cortical excitability. Changes in somatosensory evoked potentials were correlated with behavioral measures of learning. Changes in motor evoked potentials were not. These findings indicate that plasticity in somatosensory cortex occurs as a part of the earliest stages of motor learning, before changes in motor cortex are observed.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We tracked somatosensory and motor cortical excitability during motor skill acquisition. Changes in both motor cortical and somatosensory excitability were observed during learning; however, the earliest changes were in somatosensory cortex, not motor cortex. Moreover, the earliest changes in somatosensory cortical excitability predict the extent of subsequent learning; those in motor cortex do not. This is consistent with the idea that plasticity in somatosensory cortex coincides with the earliest stages of human motor learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroki Ohashi
- Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, Connecticut.,Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Paul L Gribble
- Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, Connecticut.,The Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - David J Ostry
- Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, Connecticut.,Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Nguyen DTA, Rissanen SM, Julkunen P, Kallioniemi E, Karjalainen PA. Principal Component Regression on Motor Evoked Potential in Single-Pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2019; 27:1521-1528. [DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2019.2923724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Adank P, Kennedy-Higgins D, Maegherman G, Hannah R, Nuttall HE. Effects of Coil Orientation on Motor Evoked Potentials From Orbicularis Oris. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:683. [PMID: 30483044 PMCID: PMC6243052 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to characterize effects of coil orientation on the size of Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs) from both sides of Orbicularis Oris (OO) and both First Dorsal Interosseous (FDI) muscles, following stimulation to left lip and left hand Primary Motor Cortex. Using a 70 mm figure-of-eight coil, we collected MEPs from eight different orientations while recording from contralateral and ipsilateral OO and FDI using a monophasic pulse delivered at 120% active motor threshold. MEPs from OO were evoked consistently for six orientations for contralateral and ipsilateral sites. Contralateral orientations 0°, 45°, 90°, and 315° were found to best elicit OO MEPs with a likely cortical origin. The largest FDI MEPs were recorded for contralateral 45°, invoking a posterior-anterior (PA) current flow. Orientations traditionally used for FDI were also found to be suitable for eliciting OO MEPs. Individuals vary more in their optimal orientation for OO than for FDI. It is recommended that researchers iteratively probe several orientations when eliciting MEPs from OO. Several orientations likely induced direct activation of facial muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patti Adank
- Department of Speech, Hearing and Phonetic Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dan Kennedy-Higgins
- Department of Speech, Hearing and Phonetic Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gwijde Maegherman
- Department of Speech, Hearing and Phonetic Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ricci Hannah
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Helen E. Nuttall
- Department of Speech, Hearing and Phonetic Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
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Brownstein CG, Ansdell P, Škarabot J, Howatson G, Goodall S, Thomas K. An optimal protocol for measurement of corticospinal excitability, short intracortical inhibition and intracortical facilitation in the rectus femoris. J Neurol Sci 2018; 394:45-56. [PMID: 30216757 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2018.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Revised: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The study aimed to determine the optimal application of single- and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in the rectus femoris. Twenty-nine male adults participated in the study, which involved 5 separate experiments. Experiments 1 to 3 assessed the effect of conditioning stimulus (CS) intensity (60, 70, 80 and 90% active motor threshold, AMT), contraction strength (5, 10, 20 and 50% maximum voluntary contraction, MVC), and inter-stimulus interval (ISI, 2-5 ms for short-interval intracortical inhibition, SICI and 10-15 ms for intracortical facilitation, ICF) on SICI and ICF. In Experiment 4, 30 measurements of corticospinal excitability (CSE), SICI and ICF were recorded, with the minimum number of consecutive measurements required as a probability of falling within the 95% CI determined. In Experiment 5, within- and between-day reliability of CSE, SICI and ICF was assessed. The results suggest that for SICI, a CS of 70% AMT, ISI of 2 ms, and contraction strength of 5 or 10% MVC induces the greatest level of inhibition. Negligible differences in ICF were seen across stimulus variables. The minimum number of measurements required to obtain an accurate estimate of CSE, SICI and ICF was 21, 18 and 17, respectively. Using the optimal stimulus variables and number of measurements, CSE, SICI and ICF can be measured reliably both within- and between-days (intraclass correlation coefficient, ICC ≥ 0.87, ≥0.74, and ≥0.61, respectively). The current findings can be used to guide future investigations using single- and paired-pulse TMS to elicit responses in the rectus femoris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callum G Brownstein
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Ansdell
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Jakob Škarabot
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Glyn Howatson
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom; Water Research Group, School of Environmental Sciences and Development, Northwest University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Stuart Goodall
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin Thomas
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom.
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Ansari Y, Remaud A, Tremblay F. Variations in corticomotor excitability in response to distal focal thermal stimulation. Somatosens Mot Res 2018; 35:69-79. [DOI: 10.1080/08990220.2018.1460263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yekta Ansari
- School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Anthony Remaud
- Clinical Neuroscience Laboratory, Bruyère Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - François Tremblay
- School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
- Clinical Neuroscience Laboratory, Bruyère Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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The minimal number of TMS trials required for the reliable assessment of corticospinal excitability, short interval intracortical inhibition, and intracortical facilitation. Neurosci Lett 2018; 674:94-100. [PMID: 29551425 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)-induced motor evoked potentials (MEPs) are frequently used to assess corticospinal and intercortical activities. Trial to trial variance of the potentials is commonly observed, and averages of multiple MEPs are usually reported. Multiple trials have resources implications and are not compatible with some experimental protocols. This study investigated the minimum number of MEPs required to reliably assess corticospinal excitability (CSE), short interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) and intercortical facilitation (ICF), within and between sessions. Fifteen healthy volunteers received 35 single-pulse TMS for CSE assessments and 35 paired-pulse TMS for SICI and ICF measurements. Intra- and intersession reliability were examined using intra-class correlation coefficient tests, and stability of the measures was assessed using a general equation estimation analysis. Coefficients of variation were used to probe the effects of inter-individual variability on reliability results. All analyses were carried out on cumulative averages. The optimal number of trials to ensure "excellent" intra and inter-session reliability with low inter-individual variability and the highest level of stability was found to be 20 for CSE and 26 for SICI assessments. Although 30 consecutive trials produced highly reliable ICF measures within a session, inter-session reliability was not significant across 35 trials. These findings have significant implications for improving time efficiency of TMS experiments without compromising intra- or intersession reliability.
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Huntley MK, Muller S, Vallence AM. Corticospinal excitability is modulated by distinct movement patterns during action observation. Exp Brain Res 2018; 236:1067-1075. [PMID: 29435605 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-018-5199-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
It is well established that excitability of the primary motor cortex increases during action observation. However, the modulation of motor cortex excitability during observation of different actions, with distinct movement patterns, is not fully understood. The aim of the current study was to examine time-dependent changes in corticospinal excitability during observation of two actions with different levels of complexity. We developed videos of two distinct actions (a point and a reach-and-grasp), that were matched in video length, action onset, and onset of kinematics. Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation was used to investigate time-dependent changes in primary motor cortex excitability during observation of the two actions. Motor evoked potentials (MEP) were recorded from two intrinsic hand muscles, namely first dorsal interosseous (FDI) and abductor digiti minimi. Results showed no difference in MEP amplitude during observation of a static hand compared to observation of the actions. When comparing the point to the grasp action, there were two key findings showing time-dependent changes in motor cortex excitability: first, greater MEP amplitude in FDI during observation of the point than the grasp action at an early time-point (index finger extension) and second, greater MEP amplitude in FDI during observation of the grasp than the point action at a later time-point (hand opening to form a grasp). These results show that excitability of the primary motor cortex is differentially modulated during observation of a point and grasp action, suggesting that the action observation network is engaged in a time-dependent manner during action observation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Huntley
- School of Psychology and Exercise Science, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
| | - S Muller
- School of Psychology and Exercise Science, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
| | - Ann-Maree Vallence
- School of Psychology and Exercise Science, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia.
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Riach M, Wright DJ, Franklin ZC, Holmes PS. Screen Position Preference Offers a New Direction for Action Observation Research: Preliminary Findings Using TMS. Front Hum Neurosci 2018; 12:26. [PMID: 29449805 PMCID: PMC5799289 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Action observation has been suggested to be an effective adjunct to physical practice in motor (re)learning settings. However, optimal viewing conditions for interventions are yet to be established. Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was used to investigate the effect of two different screen positions and participants’ screen position viewing preference on the amplitude of motor evoked potentials (MEPs) during observation of a ball pinch action. Twenty-four participants observed four blocked conditions that contained either a dynamic index finger-thumb ball pinch or a static hand holding a ball in a similar position on a horizontally or vertically positioned screen. TMS was delivered to the hand representation of the left primary motor cortex and MEPs were recorded from the first dorsal interosseous muscle of the right hand. Initial analysis of the normalized MEP amplitude data showed no significant differences between conditions. In a follow-up procedure, participants engaged in individual semi-structured interviews and completed a questionnaire designed to assess viewing affect and screen position viewing preference. The MEP data were subsequently split by screen position preference and re-analyzed using a 2 × 2 repeated measures ANOVA. Main effects indicated that participants who preferred the horizontal screen position (n = 16) demonstrated significantly greater MEP amplitudes during observation of the ball-pinch action compared to the static hand condition irrespective of screen position, and during the horizontal compared to the vertical screen position irrespective of video type. These results suggest that ensuring anatomical and perceptual congruency with the physical task, alongside consideration of participants’ screen position viewing preferences, may be an important part of optimizing action observation interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Riach
- Research Centre for Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - David J Wright
- Research Centre for Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Zoë C Franklin
- Research Centre for Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Paul S Holmes
- Research Centre for Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
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Polarity-independent effects of tDCS on paired associative stimulation-induced plasticity. Brain Stimul 2017; 10:1061-1069. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2017.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Revised: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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Bashir S, Yoo WK, Kim HS, Lim HS, Rotenberg A, Abu Jamea A. The Number of Pulses Needed to Measure Corticospinal Excitability by Navigated Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: Eyes Open vs. Close Condition. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:121. [PMID: 28377705 PMCID: PMC5359302 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) obtained by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) enable measures of the corticospinal excitability (CSE). However the reliability of TMS-derived CSE measures is suboptimal due to appreciable pulse-to-pulse MEP amplitude variability. We thus calculated how many TMS–derived MEPs will be needed to obtain a reliable CSE measure in awake adult subjects, in the eyes open (EO) and eyes closed (EC) conditions. Methods: Twenty healthy adults (70% male) received 40 consecutive navigated TMS pulses (120% resting motor threshold, RMT) in the EO or EC conditions on two separate days in randomized order. Results: For either the EO or EC condition, the probability that the 95% confidence interval (CI) derived from consecutive MEP amplitude measured included the true CSE, increased when the number of consecutive stimuli increased (EO: p = 0.05; EC: p = 0.001). No significant effect of RMT, Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score, or gender on the CSE estimates was identified. At least 34 consecutive stimuli were required to obtain a most reliable CSE estimate in the EO condition and 31 in the EC condition. Conclusion: Our findings indicate that >30 consecutive MEPs may be necessary in order to obtain a CSE measure in healthy adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahid Bashir
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, King Saud UniversityRiyadh, Saudi Arabia; Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical SchoolBoston, MA, USA
| | - Woo-Kyoung Yoo
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Medicine, Hallym University Sacred Heart HospitalSeoul, South Korea; Hallym Institute for Translational Genomics and Bioinformatics, Hallym University College of MedicineSeoul, South Korea
| | - Hyoung Seop Kim
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, National Health Insurance Ilsan Hospital Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyun Sun Lim
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, National Health Insurance Ilsan Hospital Seoul, South Korea
| | - Alexander Rotenberg
- Neuromodulation Program, Division of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Neurology and the F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital Boston, MA, USA
| | - Abdullah Abu Jamea
- Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, College of Medicine, King Saud University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Physical activity levels determine exercise-induced changes in brain excitability. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173672. [PMID: 28278300 PMCID: PMC5344515 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence suggests that regular physical activity can impact cortical function and facilitate plasticity. In the present study, we examined how physical activity levels influence corticospinal excitability and intracortical circuitry in motor cortex following a single session of moderate intensity aerobic exercise. We aimed to determine whether exercise-induced short-term plasticity differed between high versus low physically active individuals. Participants included twenty-eight young, healthy adults divided into two equal groups based on physical activity level determined by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire: low-to-moderate (LOW) and high (HIGH) physical activity. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was used to assess motor cortex excitability via motor evoked potential (MEP) recruitment curves for the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscle at rest (MEPREST) and during tonic contraction (MEPACTIVE), short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) and facilitation (SICF), and intracortical facilitation (ICF). All dependent measures were obtained in the resting FDI muscle, with the exception of AMT and MEPACTIVE recruitment curves that were obtained during tonic FDI contraction. Dependent measures were acquired before and following moderate intensity aerobic exercise (20 mins, ~60% of the age-predicted maximal heart rate) performed on a recumbent cycle ergometer. Results indicate that MEPREST recruitment curve amplitudes and area under the recruitment curve (AURC) were increased following exercise in the HIGH group only (p = 0.002 and p = 0.044, respectively). SICI and ICF were reduced following exercise irrespective of physical activity level (p = 0.007 and p = 0.04, respectively). MEPACTIVE recruitment curves and SICF were unaltered by exercise. These findings indicate that the propensity for exercise-induced plasticity is different in high versus low physically active individuals. Additionally, these data highlight that a single session of aerobic exercise can transiently reduce inhibition in the motor cortex regardless of physical activity level, potentially priming the system for plasticity induction.
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Philpott AL, Cummins TDR, Bailey NW, Churchyard A, Fitzgerald PB, Georgiou-Karistianis N. Cortical inhibitory deficits in Huntington's disease are not influenced by gender. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2016; 257:1-4. [PMID: 27685894 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2016.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Revised: 02/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) affects GABA-mediated inhibitory circuitry in the cortex. As there is evidence that sex hormones affect GABAergic function, we investigated whether gender modulates GABA-related pathophysiological changes in HD. Fifteen premanifest HD, 11 symptomatic HD and 16 healthy control participants were assessed with paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation applied to the primary motor cortex. Cortical inhibition was significantly reduced in symptomatic HD, compared with premanifest HD and controls. There was reduced inhibition in females overall, but no Group-by-Sex interaction. These findings suggest that sex hormones do not exert a direct influence on the mechanisms underpinning cortical inhibitory deficits in HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- April L Philpott
- School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Tarrant D R Cummins
- School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Neil W Bailey
- Monash Alfred Psychiatry Research Centre, Central Clinical School, Monash University and the Alfred, Melbourn, VIC, Australia
| | - Andrew Churchyard
- Department of Neurology, Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Paul B Fitzgerald
- Monash Alfred Psychiatry Research Centre, Central Clinical School, Monash University and the Alfred, Melbourn, VIC, Australia
| | - Nellie Georgiou-Karistianis
- School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia.
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