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Panizzolo M, Gea M, Carraro E, Gilli G, Bonetta S, Pignata C. Occurrence of human pathogenic viruses in drinking water and in its sources: A review. J Environ Sci (China) 2023; 132:145-161. [PMID: 37336605 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Since many waterborne diseases are caused by human pathogenic viruses, virus monitoring of drinking water (DW) and DW sources is crucial for public health. Therefore, the aim of this review was to describe the occurrence of human pathogenic viruses in DW and DW sources; the occurrence of two viruses proposed as novel indicators of human faecal contamination (Pepper mild mottle virus and Tobacco mosaic virus) was also reported. This research was focused on articles that assessed viral occurrence using molecular methods in the surface water used for DW production (SW-D), groundwater used for DW production (GW-D), DW and bottled-DW (BW). A total of 1544 studies published in the last 10 years were analysed, and 79 were ultimately included. In considering the detection methods, filtration is the most common concentration technique, while quantitative polymerase chain reaction is the most common quantification technique. Regarding virus occurrence in SW-D, GW-D, and DW, high percentages of positive samples were reported for adenovirus, polyomavirus and Pepper mild mottle virus. Viral genomes were frequently detected in SW-D and rarely in GW-D, suggesting that GW-D may be a safe DW source. Viral genomes were also detected in DW, posing a possible threat to human health. The lowest percentages of positive samples were found in Europe, while the highest were found in Asia and South America. Only three articles assessed viral occurrence in BW. This review highlights the lack of method standardization and the need for legislation updates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Panizzolo
- Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, Piazza Polonia 94, 10126, Torino, Italy
| | - Marta Gea
- Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, Piazza Polonia 94, 10126, Torino, Italy.
| | - Elisabetta Carraro
- Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, Piazza Polonia 94, 10126, Torino, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gilli
- Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, Piazza Polonia 94, 10126, Torino, Italy
| | - Silvia Bonetta
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Torino, Italy
| | - Cristina Pignata
- Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, Piazza Polonia 94, 10126, Torino, Italy
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2
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Norovirus GII.3[P12] Outbreak Associated with the Drinking Water Supply in a Rural Area in Galicia, Spain, 2021. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0104822. [PMID: 35867474 PMCID: PMC9431064 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01048-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Noroviruses are likely to be underrecognized in most suspected waterborne outbreaks. Therefore, effective norovirus detection and the early recognition of water as a possible source of infection are important to reduce morbidity as appropriate steps are taken to control the source.
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3
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Bisseux M, Colombet J, Mirand A, Roque-Afonso AM, Abravanel F, Izopet J, Archimbaud C, Peigue-Lafeuille H, Debroas D, Bailly JL, Henquell C. Monitoring human enteric viruses in wastewater and relevance to infections encountered in the clinical setting: a one-year experiment in central France, 2014 to 2015. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 23. [PMID: 29471623 PMCID: PMC5824128 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2018.23.7.17-00237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Human enteric viruses are resistant in the environment and transmitted via the faecal-oral route. Viral shedding in wastewater gives the opportunity to track emerging pathogens and study the epidemiology of enteric infectious diseases in the community. Aim: The aim of this study was to monitor the circulation of enteric viruses in the population of the Clermont-Ferrand area (France) by analysis of urban wastewaters. Methods: Raw and treated wastewaters were collected between October 2014 and October 2015 and concentrated by a two-step protocol using tangential flow ultrafiltration and polyethylene glycol precipitation. Processed samples were analysed for molecular detection of adenovirus, norovirus, rotavirus, parechovirus, enterovirus (EV), hepatitis A (HAV) and E (HEV) viruses. Results: All wastewater samples (n = 54) contained viruses. On average, six and four virus species were detected in, respectively, raw and treated wastewater samples. EV-positive samples were tested for EV-D68 to assess its circulation in the community. EV-D68 was detected in seven of 27 raw samples. We collected data from clinical cases of EV-D68 (n = 17), HAV (n = 4) and HEV infection (n = 16) and compared wastewater-derived sequences with clinical sequences. We showed the silent circulation of EV-D68 in September 2015, the wide circulation of HAV despite few notifications of acute disease and the presence in wastewater of the major HEV subtypes involved in clinical local cases. Conclusion: The environmental surveillance overcomes the sampling bias intrinsic to the study of infections associated with hospitalisation and allows the detection in real time of viral sequences genetically close to those reported in clinical specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Bisseux
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Centre National de Référence Entérovirus et parechovirus - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Jonathan Colombet
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Audrey Mirand
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Centre National de Référence Entérovirus et parechovirus - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Anne-Marie Roque-Afonso
- AP-HP, Hôpital Paul Brousse, Centre National de Référence Virus des hépatites à transmission entérique (hépatite A) - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Villejuif, France
| | - Florence Abravanel
- CHU Toulouse, Centre National de Référence Virus des hépatites à transmission entérique (hépatite E) - Laboratoire Coordonnateur, Laboratoire de Virologie, Toulouse, France
| | - Jacques Izopet
- CHU Toulouse, Centre National de Référence Virus des hépatites à transmission entérique (hépatite E) - Laboratoire Coordonnateur, Laboratoire de Virologie, Toulouse, France
| | - Christine Archimbaud
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Centre National de Référence Entérovirus et parechovirus - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Hélène Peigue-Lafeuille
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Centre National de Référence Entérovirus et parechovirus - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Didier Debroas
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Jean-Luc Bailly
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Cécile Henquell
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Centre National de Référence Entérovirus et parechovirus - Laboratoire Associé, Laboratoire de Virologie, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement, Clermont-Ferrand, France
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4
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Viral tools for detection of fecal contamination and microbial source tracking in wastewater from food industries and domestic sewage. J Virol Methods 2018; 262:79-88. [PMID: 30336954 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2018.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Revised: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Alternative indicators may be more suitable than thermotolerant coliform bacteria to assess enteric virus pollution in environmental waters and their removal from wastewaters. In this study, F-specific RNA bacteriophages (F-RNAPh) showed to be potential viral indicators of fecal contamination when they were quantified from domestic and food-industrial effluents containing human, chicken, swine or bovine wastes. In addition, they showed to be resistant to the primary and secondary treatments of the wastewater treatment plants. The viable F-RNAPh count showed correlation with viable thermotolerant coliforms but also with human polyomaviruses (HPyV) quantified by a new molecular method. In domestic effluents, F-RNAPh and HPyV indicators significantly correlated with a human viral pathogen, norovirus, while the bacterial indicator did not, being then better predictors of the behavior of enteric pathogenic viruses. In addition, we assessed human, bovine and fowl microbial source tracking markers, based on the molecular detections of human polyomavirus, bovine polyomavirus, and fowl adenovirus, respectively. The techniques implemented extend the range of viruses detected, since they target different viral types simultaneously. These markers could be applied when multiple source pollution is suspected, contributing to making decisions on public health interventions.
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Barnadas C, Schmidt DJ, Fischer TK, Fonager J. Molecular epidemiology of human adenovirus infections in Denmark, 2011-2016. J Clin Virol 2018; 104:16-22. [PMID: 29704734 PMCID: PMC7106356 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2018.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
We developed new primers to improve genotyping of HAdV D. Six out of seven HAdV species from at least 13 HAdV types were identified. Young children (<5 years old) were more likely to be positive for HAdV. Co-infections with other gastrointestinal or respiratory viruses were common. A HAdV surveillance system is required to monitor circulating species and types.
Background Human adenoviruses (HAdVs) can cause respiratory tract infections, conjunctivitis, diarrhoea and outbreaks have been reported. However, little is known about the disease burden and the molecular epidemiology of HAdV. Objectives To retrospectively perform a molecular characterization of HAdV positive samples received at Statens Serum Institut during the period 2011–2016 and to compare this with demographic information, geographic location, sample collection date and type and co-infection with other viral pathogens. Study design 152 HAdV positive samples were genotyped by Sanger sequencing of a fragment of the hexon gene using published primers along with a newly developed primer set for enhanced genotyping of HAdV D. Phylogenetic analysis was used for genotyping and genotypes were compared with epidemiological information. In addition, HAdV burden and co-infection was evaluated for samples tested in laboratory analysis packages. Results Six out of seven HAdV species were identified and represented by 13 types. Young children (<5 years old) were more likely to be positive for HAdV and co-infections with other gastrointestinal or respiratory viruses were common. Possible outbreaks of ocular infections due to HAdV D could not be confirmed. Conclusion A diverse set of HAdV species were circulating in Denmark in the study period and although possible transmission clusters were identified, this could not be verified with current genotyping methods Young children were commonly affected by HAdV infection and co-infections with other viral pathogens were frequent suggesting a possible underestimation of the real HAdV burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Barnadas
- European Public Health Microbiology (EUPHEM) Training Programme, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden; Virus & Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Infectious Disease Preparedness, Statens Serum Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Dennis Jelsbak Schmidt
- Virus & Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Infectious Disease Preparedness, Statens Serum Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thea K Fischer
- Virus & Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Infectious Disease Preparedness, Statens Serum Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Infectious Diseases and Centre for Global Health, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark
| | - Jannik Fonager
- Virus & Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Infectious Disease Preparedness, Statens Serum Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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6
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Waldman P, Meseguer A, Lucas F, Moulin L, Wurtzer S. Interaction of Human Enteric Viruses with Microbial Compounds: Implication for Virus Persistence and Disinfection Treatments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:13633-13640. [PMID: 29116763 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Although the interaction between phages and bacteria has already been well described, it only recently emerged that human viruses also interact with bacteria in the mammalian gut. We studied whether this interaction could occur in tap water and thus confer enteric viruses protection against temperature and the classical disinfection treatments used in drinking water production. We demonstrated that the addition of lipopolysaccharide or peptidoglycan of bacterial origin to enterovirus provides thermal protection through stabilization of the viral capsid. This interaction plays a role when viruses are exposed to disinfection that targets the capsid, but less so when the virus genome is directly targeted. The interaction seems to be serotype-specific, suggesting that the capsid protein sequence could be important. The protection is linked to a direct association between viral particles and bacterial compounds as observed by microscopy. These results show that bacterial compounds present in the environment can affect virus inactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prunelle Waldman
- Laboratoire Eau Environnement et Systèmes Urbains (LEESU UMR MA 102), Faculté des Sciences et Technologie, Université Paris-Est , 61 avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94000 Créteil, France
| | - Alba Meseguer
- Eau de Paris, DRDQE, 33 Avenue Jean Jaurès, 94200 Ivry-sur-Seine, France
| | - Françoise Lucas
- Laboratoire Eau Environnement et Systèmes Urbains (LEESU UMR MA 102), Faculté des Sciences et Technologie, Université Paris-Est , 61 avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94000 Créteil, France
| | - Laurent Moulin
- Eau de Paris, DRDQE, 33 Avenue Jean Jaurès, 94200 Ivry-sur-Seine, France
| | - Sébastien Wurtzer
- Eau de Paris, DRDQE, 33 Avenue Jean Jaurès, 94200 Ivry-sur-Seine, France
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7
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Fonager J, Stegger M, Rasmussen LD, Poulsen MW, Rønn J, Andersen PS, Fischer TK. A universal primer-independent next-generation sequencing approach for investigations of norovirus outbreaks and novel variants. Sci Rep 2017; 7:813. [PMID: 28400558 PMCID: PMC5429772 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-00926-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) is the most common cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritis and is a major agent associated with outbreaks of gastroenteritis. Conventional molecular genotyping analysis of NoV, used for the identification of transmission routes, relies on standard typing methods (STM) by Sanger-sequencing of only a limited part of the NoV genome, which could lead to wrong conclusions. Here, we combined a NoV capture method with next generation sequencing (NGS), which increased the proportion of norovirus reads by ~40 fold compared to NGS without prior capture. Of 15 NoV samples from 6 single-genotype outbreaks, near full-genome coverage (>90%) was obtained from 9 samples. Fourteen polymerase (RdRp) and 15 capsid (cap) genotypes were identified compared to 12 and 13 for the STM, respectively. Analysis of 9 samples from two mixed-genotype outbreaks identified 6 RdRp and 6 cap genotypes (two at >90% NoV genome coverage) compared to 4 and 2 for the STM, respectively. Furthermore, complete or partial sequences from the P2 hypervariable region were obtained from 7 of 8 outbreaks and a new NoV recombinant was identified. This approach could therefore strengthen outbreak investigations and could be applied to other important viruses in stool samples such as hepatitis A and enterovirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannik Fonager
- Virology Surveillance and Research Section, Department of Microbiological diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Marc Stegger
- Department of Microbiology and Infection Control, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lasse Dam Rasmussen
- Virology Surveillance and Research Section, Department of Microbiological diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mille Weismann Poulsen
- Virology Surveillance and Research Section, Department of Microbiological diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jesper Rønn
- Virology Surveillance and Research Section, Department of Microbiological diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Paal Skytt Andersen
- Department of Microbiology and Infection Control, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thea Kølsen Fischer
- Virology Surveillance and Research Section, Department of Microbiological diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Centre for Global health, Clinical Unit, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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8
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Moreira NA, Bondelind M. Safe drinking water and waterborne outbreaks. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2017; 15:83-96. [PMID: 28151442 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2016.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The present work compiles a review on drinking waterborne outbreaks, with the perspective of production and distribution of microbiologically safe water, during 2000-2014. The outbreaks are categorised in raw water contamination, treatment deficiencies and distribution network failure. The main causes for contamination were: for groundwater, intrusion of animal faeces or wastewater due to heavy rain; in surface water, discharge of wastewater into the water source and increased turbidity and colour; at treatment plants, malfunctioning of the disinfection equipment; and for distribution systems, cross-connections, pipe breaks and wastewater intrusion into the network. Pathogens causing the largest number of affected consumers were Cryptosporidium, norovirus, Giardia, Campylobacter, and rotavirus. The largest number of different pathogens was found for the treatment works and the distribution network. The largest number of affected consumers with gastrointestinal illness was for contamination events from a surface water source, while the largest number of individual events occurred for the distribution network.
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Affiliation(s)
- N A Moreira
- Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, UK; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chalmers, Sven Hultins gata 8, Göteborg 412 96, Sweden E-mail:
| | - M Bondelind
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chalmers, Sven Hultins gata 8, Göteborg 412 96, Sweden E-mail:
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Müller L, Rasmussen LD, Jensen T, Schultz AC, Kjelsø C, Barnadas C, Sigsgaard K, Larsen AR, Widstrup Jensen C, Jeppesen S, Uhrbrand K, Hove N, Mølbak K, Ethelberg S. Series of Norovirus Outbreaks Caused by Consumption of Green Coral Lettuce, Denmark, April 2016. PLOS CURRENTS 2016; 8:ecurrents.outbreaks.115761d5d6de6a8bc7dd4b41f0f5f142. [PMID: 27803839 PMCID: PMC5074700 DOI: 10.1371/currents.outbreaks.115761d5d6de6a8bc7dd4b41f0f5f142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In early April 2016, an unusual high number of point-source outbreaks of gastrointestinal disease were reported to occur in Denmark. METHODS Outbreaks were individually investigated. Two analytical studies were performed. Patient stool samples collected and analysed; positive stool samples were sequenced over the polymerase and/or capsid gene areas. Implicated lettuce heads were collected and analysed for the presence of norovirus. Foods were traced-back and traced-forward and international alert systems applied. RESULTS A total of 23 linked point-source outbreaks occurred over the course of one week. Fresh green coral lettuce (Lollo Bionda lettuce) had been consumed in all settings. In a cohort study including 234 participants a dish containing green lettuce was associated with illness. Norovirus of Genogroup I (GI) was detected in samples from 28 patients comprising eight of the outbreaks. Sequencing showed GI.P2-GI.2. GI norovirus was detected in one of 20 examined lettuce heads. All lettuce consumed was supplied by the same packer who in turn had bought the lettuce from a wholesaler in France. The two lots of lettuce came from two different growers in different parts of France. DISCUSSION Green coral lettuce produced in France was found to have caused a large series of linked norovirus outbreaks in Denmark as established by a number of lines of evidence. A similar incidence occurred in 2010. Fresh lettuce increasingly appear to be a risk food for norovirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luise Müller
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lasse Dam Rasmussen
- Microbiological Diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tenna Jensen
- Division of Food and Feed Safety, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, Ministry of Environment and Food, Glostrup, Denmark
| | - Anna Charlotte Schultz
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Søborg, Denmark
| | - Charlotte Kjelsø
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Celine Barnadas
- European Programme in Public Health Microbiology, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Microbiological Diagnostics & Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kim Sigsgaard
- Food Control Office Copenhagen, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anne Ribert Larsen
- Food Control Office Zealand/Funen, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, Denmark Food Control Office Zealand/Funen, The Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, Denmark
| | - Carl Widstrup Jensen
- Food Control Office Copenhagen, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Simon Jeppesen
- Food Control Office Copenhagen, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Katrine Uhrbrand
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Søborg, Denmark
| | - Nikolas Hove
- Division of Food and Feed Safety, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, Ministry of Environment and Food, Glostrup, Denmark
| | - Kåre Mølbak
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Steen Ethelberg
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
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10
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Ibfelt T, Frandsen T, Permin A, Andersen LP, Schultz AC. Test and validation of methods to sample and detect human virus from environmental surfaces using norovirus as a model virus. J Hosp Infect 2016; 92:378-84. [PMID: 26905662 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2016.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Viruses cause a major proportion of human infections, especially gastroenteritis and respiratory infections in children and adults. Indirect transmission between humans via environmental surfaces may play a role in infections, but methods to investigate this have been sparse. AIM To validate and test efficient and reliable procedures to detect multiple human pathogenic viruses on surfaces. METHODS The study was divided into two parts. In Part A, six combinations of three different swabs (consisting of cotton, foamed cotton, or polyester head) and two different elution methods (direct lysis or immersion in alkaline glycine buffer before lysis) were tested for efficient recovery of human norovirus GII.7 and mengovirus from artificially contaminated surfaces. In Part B we determined the detection limit for norovirus GI.1 and GII.3 using the best procedure found in Part A linked with a commercial multiplex real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction detection assay. FINDINGS Combining the polyester swab with direct lysis allowed recovery down to 100 and 10 genome copies/cm(2) of norovirus GI.1 and GII.3, respectively. This procedure resulted in the significant highest recovery of both norovirus and mengovirus, whereas no differences in amplification efficiencies were observed between the different procedures. CONCLUSION The results indicate that it is possible to detect low concentrations of virus on environmental surfaces. We therefore suggest that a polyester swab, followed by direct lysis, combined with a multiplex qPCR detection assay is an efficient screening tool that merits study of different respiratory and gastrointestinal viruses on environment surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Ibfelt
- Departments of Infection Control 6901 and Clinical Microbiology 9301, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Denmark.
| | - T Frandsen
- Departments of Infection Control 6901 and Clinical Microbiology 9301, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Denmark
| | - A Permin
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, DTU, Denmark
| | - L P Andersen
- Departments of Infection Control 6901 and Clinical Microbiology 9301, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Denmark
| | - A C Schultz
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, DTU, Denmark
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11
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Bavelaar HH, Rahamat-Langendoen J, Niesters HG, Zoll J, Melchers WJ. Whole genome sequencing of fecal samples as a tool for the diagnosis and genetic characterization of norovirus. J Clin Virol 2015; 72:122-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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12
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Separate norovirus outbreaks linked to one source of imported frozen raspberries by molecular analysis, Denmark, 2010-2011. Epidemiol Infect 2015; 143:2299-307. [PMID: 25530074 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268814003409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Norovirus outbreaks occur frequently in Denmark and it can be difficult to establish whether apparently independent outbreaks have the same origin. Here we report on six outbreaks linked to frozen raspberries, investigated separately over a period of 3 months. Norovirus from stools were sequence-typed; including extended sequencing of 1138 bp encompassing the hypervariable P2 region of the capsid gene. Norovirus was detected in 27 stool samples. Genotyping showed genotype GI.Pb_GI.6 (polymerase/capsid) with 100% identical sequences. Samples from five outbreaks were furthermore identical over the variable capsid P2 region. In one outbreak at a hospital canteen, frozen raspberries was associated with illness by cohort investigation (relative risk 6·1, 95% confidence interval 3·2-11). Bags of raspberries suspected to be the source were positive for genogroup I and II noroviruses, one typable virus was genotype GI.6 (capsid). These molecular investigations showed that the apparently independent outbreaks were the result of one contamination event of frozen raspberries. The contaminated raspberries originated from a single producer in Serbia and were originally not considered to belong to the same batch. The outbreaks led to consultations and mutual visits between producers, investigators and authorities. Further, Danish legislation was changed to make heat-treatment of frozen raspberries compulsory in professional catering establishments.
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13
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Xue Y, Pan H, Hu J, Wu H, Li J, Xiao W, Zhang X, Yuan Z, Wu F. Epidemiology of norovirus infections among diarrhea outpatients in a diarrhea surveillance system in Shanghai, China: a cross-sectional study. BMC Infect Dis 2015; 15:183. [PMID: 25884557 PMCID: PMC4438334 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-015-0922-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Norovirus is an important cause of gastroenteritis both in children and adults. In China, few studies have been conducted on adult populations. This study aimed to determine the contribution of norovirus to gastroenteritis, characterize the features of norovirus infections, compare them with other pathogens, and test the effectiveness of the surveillance system. Methods A citywide surveillance network on diarrhea patients was established. Samples were collected with intervals from both children and adults among diarrhea outpatients in hospitals and tested for viruses using rRT-PCR and for bacteria in CDCs. Patient information was acquired through interviews and recorded into a dedicated online system. The Pearsonχ2 test, multivariate logistic regression models and discriminant models were fitted into its comparisons with the non-norovirus group and other pathogens. Results Norovirus was detected in 22.91% of sampled diarrhea patients. The seasonal distribution of norovirus infections was different from non-norovirus patients (p < 0.001), with a half-year peak. Higher proportions of males (p = 0.001, OR = 1.303, 95% CI = 1.110-1.529), local citizens (p < 0.001) and officials/clerks (p = 0.001, OR = 1.348, 95% CI = 1.124-1.618) were affected with norovirus when compared with non-norovirus patients. Diarrhea patients affected with norovirus featured nausea (p < 0.001, OR = 1.418, 95% CI = 1.176-1.709) and vomiting (p < 0.001, OR = 1.969, 95% CI = 1.618-2.398), while fewer manifested fever (p = 0.046, OR = 0.758, 95% CI = 0.577-0.996) and abdominal pain (p = 0.018, OR = 0.815, 95% CI = 0.689-0.965). Children were more vulnerable to rotavirus (p = 0.008, OR = 1.637, 95% CI = 1.136-2.358) and bacteria (p = 0.027, OR = 1.511, 95% CI = 1.053-2.169) than norovirus. There was a seasonal difference between the GI and GII genotypes (p < 0.001). Officials or clerks were more easily affected with GI than GII (p = 0.006, OR = 1.888, 95% CI = 1.205-2.958). Conclusions This study was based on a citywide hospital-sentinel surveillance system with multiple enteric pathogens included. Norovirus was recognized as the most prevalent enteric pathogen in Shanghai. The seasonal peak was from October to April. Males had a higher prevalence than females. Local citizens and officials/clerks were more vulnerable to norovirus than other pathogens. Compared with rotavirus and bacteria, children were less frequently affected by norovirus. Nausea and vomiting were typical of norovirus, whereas fever and abdominal pain were uncommon symptoms of this pathogen. GI and GII infections were centered in different seasons. Officials and clerks were more easily affected by GI than GII. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12879-015-0922-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Xue
- Department of Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 1380, West Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200336, China.
| | - Hao Pan
- Department of Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 1380, West Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200336, China.
| | - Jiayu Hu
- Department of Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 1380, West Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200336, China.
| | - Huanyu Wu
- Department of Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 1380, West Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200336, China.
| | - Jian Li
- Department of Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 1380, West Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200336, China.
| | - Wenjia Xiao
- Department of Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 1380, West Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200336, China.
| | - Xi Zhang
- Department of Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 1380, West Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200336, China.
| | - Zheng'an Yuan
- Department of Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 1380, West Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200336, China.
| | - Fan Wu
- Department of Infectious Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 1380, West Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200336, China.
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