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Prunty JE, Jenkins R, Qarooni R, Bindemann M. A cognitive template for human face detection. Cognition 2024; 249:105792. [PMID: 38763070 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
Faces are highly informative social stimuli, yet before any information can be accessed, the face must first be detected in the visual field. A detection template that serves this purpose must be able to accommodate the wide variety of face images we encounter, but how this generality could be achieved remains unknown. In this study, we investigate whether statistical averages of previously encountered faces can form the basis of a general face detection template. We provide converging evidence from a range of methods-human similarity judgements and PCA-based image analysis of face averages (Experiment 1-3), human detection behaviour for faces embedded in complex scenes (Experiment 4 and 5), and simulations with a template-matching algorithm (Experiment 6 and 7)-to examine the formation, stability and robustness of statistical image averages as cognitive templates for human face detection. We integrate these findings with existing knowledge of face identification, ensemble coding, and the development of face perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan E Prunty
- Leverhulme Centre for the Future of Intelligence, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Rob Jenkins
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK
| | - Rana Qarooni
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK
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2
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Balas B, Sandford A, Ritchie K. Not the norm: Face likeness is not the same as similarity to familiar face prototypes. Iperception 2023; 14:20416695231171355. [PMID: 37151573 PMCID: PMC10161317 DOI: 10.1177/20416695231171355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Face images depicting the same individual can differ substantially from one another. Ecological variation in pose, expression, lighting, and other sources of appearance variability complicates the recognition and matching of unfamiliar faces, but acquired familiarity leads to the ability to cope with these challenges. Among the many ways that face of the same individual can vary, some images are judged to be better likenesses of familiar individuals than others. Simply put, these images look more like the individual under consideration than others. But what does it mean for an image to be a better likeness than another? Does likeness entail typicality, or is it something distinct from this? We examined the relationship between the likeness of face images and the similarity of those images to average images of target individuals using a set of famous faces selected for reciprocal familiarity/unfamiliarity across US and UK participants. We found that though likeness judgments are correlated with similarity-to-prototype judgments made by both familiar and unfamiliar participants, this correlation was smaller than the correlation between similarity judgments made by different participant groups. This implies that while familiarity weakens the relationship between likeness and similarity-to-prototype judgments, it does not change similarity-to-prototype judgments to the same degree.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Balas
- Psychology Department, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
| | - Adam Sandford
- Psychology Department, University of Guelph-Humber, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kay Ritchie
- School of Psychology, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
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3
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Bindemann M, Hole GJ. Understanding face identification through within-person variability in appearance: Introduction to a virtual special issue. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2020; 73:NP1-NP8. [PMID: 32985938 PMCID: PMC7675770 DOI: 10.1177/1747021820959068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In the effort to determine the cognitive processes underlying the identification of faces, the dissimilarities between images of different people have long been studied. In contrast, the inherent variability between different images of the same face has either been treated as a nuisance variable that should be eliminated from psychological experiments or it has not been considered at all. Over the past decade, research efforts have increased substantially to demonstrate that this within-person variation is meaningful and can give insight into various processes of face identification, such as identity matching, face learning, and familiar face recognition. In this virtual special issue of the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, we explain the importance of within-person variability for face identification and bring together recent relevant articles published in the journal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Bindemann
- School of Psychology, Keynes College, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Graham J Hole
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
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4
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Depiction of ethnic facial aging by forensic artists and preliminary assessment of the applicability of facial averages. Forensic Sci Int 2020; 313:110353. [PMID: 32559613 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Many characteristics of facial aging are common to all. The age of their onset and which characteristics tend to predominate varies among individuals depending on many factors including their genetic makeup, life experiences, environment in which they live, and the regional, ethnic, or socially perceived group to which they belong. Forensic artists are often asked to provide sketches, 2D or 3D digital renderings, or sculptures representative of how an individual may appear at an older age based on a provided photograph, victim or witness description, and/or cranial remains. The challenge escalates when the subject is a member of a regional, ethnic, or other socially perceived group to which the artist has had little or no exposure. We describe aspects of adult facial aging that are of particular relevance to the forensic artist, applicable software tools, and pertinent facial databases, especially those emphasizing non-white populations. We demonstrate that facial averaging offers two key advantages to the artistic portrayal of facial aging: first, the technique requires relatively small reference databases from groups that may present logistical challenges to collect and second, that a facial average provides a useful representation of the gestalt of the age and ethnicity cohort to which a subject belongs. The artist may use an average along with other available information such as photo reference books, eyewitness descriptions, photos of immediate family members, and cranial structure to guide production of a facial composite drawing, digital age progression, or sculpture of the subject in question.
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Mohammad AS, Rattani A, Derakhshani R. Eyebrows and eyeglasses as soft biometrics using deep learning. IET BIOMETRICS 2019. [DOI: 10.1049/iet-bmt.2018.5230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Saeed Mohammad
- School of Computing and EngineeringUniversity of Missouri‐Kansas CityMissouriKansas City64110USA
- Collage of EngineeringMustansiriyah UniversityBaghdadIraq
| | - Ajita Rattani
- School of Computing and EngineeringUniversity of Missouri‐Kansas CityMissouriKansas City64110USA
| | - Reza Derakhshani
- School of Computing and EngineeringUniversity of Missouri‐Kansas CityMissouriKansas City64110USA
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6
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Ritchie KL, Mireku MO, Kramer RSS. Face averages and multiple images in a live matching task. Br J Psychol 2019; 111:92-102. [PMID: 30945267 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
We know from previous research that unfamiliar face matching (determining whether two simultaneously presented images show the same person or not) is very error-prone. A small number of studies in laboratory settings have shown that the use of multiple images or a face average, rather than a single image, can improve face matching performance. Here, we tested 1,999 participants using four-image arrays and face averages in two separate live matching tasks. Matching a single image to a live person resulted in numerous errors (79.9% accuracy across both experiments), and neither multiple images (82.4% accuracy) nor face averages (76.9% accuracy) improved performance. These results are important when considering possible alterations which could be made to photo-ID. Although multiple images and face averages have produced measurable improvements in performance in recent laboratory studies, they do not produce benefits in a real-world live face matching context.
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7
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Ritchie KL, White D, Kramer RSS, Noyes E, Jenkins R, Burton AM. Enhancing CCTV: Averages improve face identification from poor-quality images. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - David White
- School of Psychology; University of New South Wales; Sydney Australia
| | | | - Eilidh Noyes
- Department of Psychology; University of York; York UK
| | - Rob Jenkins
- Department of Psychology; University of York; York UK
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8
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Ritchie KL, Kramer RSS, Burton AM. What makes a face photo a 'good likeness'? Cognition 2017; 170:1-8. [PMID: 28917125 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Revised: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Photographs of people are commonly said to be 'good likenesses' or 'poor likenesses', and this is a concept that we readily understand. Despite this, there has been no systematic investigation of what makes an image a good likeness, or of which cognitive processes are involved in making such a judgement. In three experiments, we investigate likeness judgements for different types of images: natural images of film stars (Experiment 1), images of film stars from specific films (Experiment 2), and iconic images and face averages (Experiment 3). In all three experiments, participants rated images for likeness and completed speeded name verification tasks. We consistently show that participants are faster to identify images which they have previously rated asa good likeness compared to a poor likeness. We also consistently show that the more familiar we are with someone, the higher likeness rating we give to all images of them. A key finding is that our perception of likeness is idiosyncratic (Experiments 1 and 2), and can be tied to our specific experience of each individual (Experiment 2). We argue that likeness judgements require a comparison between the stimulus and our own representation of the person, and that this representation differs according to our prior experience with that individual. This has theoretical implications for our understanding of how we represent familiar people, and practical implications for how we go about selecting images for identity purposes such as photo-ID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay L Ritchie
- Department of Psychology, University of York, UK; School of Psychology, University of Lincoln, UK
| | - Robin S S Kramer
- Department of Psychology, University of York, UK; School of Psychology, University of Lincoln, UK
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9
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Estudillo AJ, Bindemann M. Can Gaze-Contingent Mirror-Feedback from Unfamiliar Faces alter Self-Recognition? Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2017; 70:944-958. [DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2016.1166253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This study focuses on learning of the self, by examining how human observers update internal representations of their own face. For this purpose, we present a novel gaze-contingent paradigm, in which an onscreen face mimics observers’ own eye-gaze behaviour (in the congruent condition), moves its eyes in different directions to that of the observers (incongruent condition), or remains static and unresponsive (neutral condition). Across three experiments, the mimicry of the onscreen face did not affect observers’ perceptual self-representations. However, this paradigm influenced observers’ reports of their own face. This effect was such that observers felt the onscreen face to be their own and that, if the onscreen gaze had moved on its own accord, observers expected their own eyes to move too. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
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10
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Robertson DJ, Kramer RSS, Burton AM. Fraudulent ID using face morphs: Experiments on human and automatic recognition. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173319. [PMID: 28328928 PMCID: PMC5362102 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Matching unfamiliar faces is known to be difficult, and this can give an opportunity to those engaged in identity fraud. Here we examine a relatively new form of fraud, the use of photo-ID containing a graphical morph between two faces. Such a document may look sufficiently like two people to serve as ID for both. We present two experiments with human viewers, and a third with a smartphone face recognition system. In Experiment 1, viewers were asked to match pairs of faces, without being warned that one of the pair could be a morph. They very commonly accepted a morphed face as a match. However, in Experiment 2, following very short training on morph detection, their acceptance rate fell considerably. Nevertheless, there remained large individual differences in people's ability to detect a morph. In Experiment 3 we show that a smartphone makes errors at a similar rate to 'trained' human viewers-i.e. accepting a small number of morphs as genuine ID. We discuss these results in reference to the use of face photos for security.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - A. Mike Burton
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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11
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InterFace: A software package for face image warping, averaging, and principal components analysis. Behav Res Methods 2016; 49:2002-2011. [DOI: 10.3758/s13428-016-0837-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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12
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Guzman-Zavaleta ZJ, Feregrino-Uribe C. Towards a Video Passive Content Fingerprinting Method for Partial-Copy Detection Robust against Non-Simulated Attacks. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0166047. [PMID: 27861492 PMCID: PMC5115698 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0166047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Passive content fingerprinting is widely used for video content identification and monitoring. However, many challenges remain unsolved especially for partial-copies detection. The main challenge is to find the right balance between the computational cost of fingerprint extraction and fingerprint dimension, without compromising detection performance against various attacks (robustness). Fast video detection performance is desirable in several modern applications, for instance, in those where video detection involves the use of large video databases or in applications requiring real-time video detection of partial copies, a process whose difficulty increases when videos suffer severe transformations. In this context, conventional fingerprinting methods are not fully suitable to cope with the attacks and transformations mentioned before, either because the robustness of these methods is not enough or because their execution time is very high, where the time bottleneck is commonly found in the fingerprint extraction and matching operations. Motivated by these issues, in this work we propose a content fingerprinting method based on the extraction of a set of independent binary global and local fingerprints. Although these features are robust against common video transformations, their combination is more discriminant against severe video transformations such as signal processing attacks, geometric transformations and temporal and spatial desynchronization. Additionally, we use an efficient multilevel filtering system accelerating the processes of fingerprint extraction and matching. This multilevel filtering system helps to rapidly identify potential similar video copies upon which the fingerprint process is carried out only, thus saving computational time. We tested with datasets of real copied videos, and the results show how our method outperforms state-of-the-art methods regarding detection scores. Furthermore, the granularity of our method makes it suitable for partial-copy detection; that is, by processing only short segments of 1 second length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zobeida Jezabel Guzman-Zavaleta
- Computer Science Department, Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica (INAOE), Sta. Ma. Tonanzintla, Puebla, México
- * E-mail:
| | - Claudia Feregrino-Uribe
- Computer Science Department, Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica (INAOE), Sta. Ma. Tonanzintla, Puebla, México
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13
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Robust representations of individual faces in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) but not monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Anim Cogn 2016; 20:321-329. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-016-1054-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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