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Muller A, Sharon G, Grosman L. Automatic analysis of the continuous edges of stone tools reveals fundamental handaxe variability. Sci Rep 2024; 14:7422. [PMID: 38548775 PMCID: PMC10978895 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-57450-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
The edges of stone tools have significant technological and functional implications. The nature of these edges-their sharpness, whether they are concave or convex, and their asymmetry-reflect how they were made and how they could be used. Similarly, blunt portions of a tool's perimeter hint at how they could have been grasped or hafted and in which directions force could be applied. However, due to the difficulty in accurately measuring the complex 3D geometry of tool edges with traditional methods, their attributes are often overlooked. When they are analyzed, they have traditionally been assessed with visual qualitative categories or unreliable physical measurements. We introduce new computational 3D methods for automatically and repeatably measuring key attributes of stone tool edges. These methods allow us to automatically identify the 3D perimeter of tools, segment this perimeter according to changes in edge angles, and measure these discrete edge segments with a range of metrics. We test this new computational toolkit on a large sample of 3D models of handaxes from the later Acheulean of the southern Levant. Despite these handaxes being otherwise technologically and morphologically similar, we find marked differences in the amount of knapped outline, edge angle, and the concavity of their edges. We find many handaxes possess blunt portions of perimeter, suitable for grasping, and some handaxes even possess more than one discrete sharp edge. Among our sample, sites with longer occupations and more diverse toolkits possessed handaxes with more diverse edges. Above all, this paper offers new methods for computing the complex 3D geometry of stone tool edges that could be applied to any number of artifact types. These methods are fully automated, allowing the analysis and visualization of entire assemblages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Muller
- Computational Archaeology Laboratory, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Gonen Sharon
- Multidisciplinary Studies, Tel-Hai College, East Campus, Upper Galilee, Israel
| | - Leore Grosman
- Computational Archaeology Laboratory, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
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2
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Kadowaki S, Wakano JY, Tamura T, Watanabe A, Hirose M, Suga E, Tsukada K, Tarawneh O, Massadeh S. Delayed increase in stone tool cutting-edge productivity at the Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition in southern Jordan. Nat Commun 2024; 15:610. [PMID: 38326315 PMCID: PMC10850154 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-44798-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Although the lithic cutting-edge productivity has long been recognized as a quantifiable aspect of prehistoric human technological evolution, there remains uncertainty how the productivity changed during the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition. Here we present the cutting-edge productivity of eight lithic assemblages in the eastern Mediterranean region that represent a chrono-cultural sequence including the Late Middle Paleolithic, Initial Upper Paleolithic, the Early Upper Paleolithic, and the Epipaleolithic. The results show that a major increase in the cutting-edge productivity does not coincide with the conventional Middle-Upper Paleolithic boundary characterized by the increase in blades in the Initial Upper Paleolithic, but it occurs later in association with the development of bladelet technology in the Early Upper Paleolithic. Given increasing discussions on the complexity of Middle-Upper Paleolithic cultural changes, it may be fruitful to have a long-term perspective and employ consistent criteria for diachronic comparisons to make objective assessment of how cultural changes proceeded across conventional chrono-cultural boundaries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seiji Kadowaki
- Nagoya University Museum, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan.
| | - Joe Yuichiro Wakano
- School of Interdisciplinary Mathematical Sciences, Meiji University, Nakano 4-21-1, Nakano-ku, Tokyo, 164-8525, Japan
| | - Toru Tamura
- Geological Survey of Japan, AIST, Central 7, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8567, Japan
| | - Ayami Watanabe
- Nagoya University Museum, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan
| | - Masato Hirose
- Laboratory of Archaeology, Kiso Regional Union, Nagano, 399-6101, Japan
| | - Eiki Suga
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Tsukada
- Nagoya University Museum, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan
| | - Oday Tarawneh
- Department of Antiquities, Third Circle, Jabal Amman, Amman, Jordan
| | - Sate Massadeh
- Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Third Circle, Jabal Amman, Amman, Jordan
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Grosman L, Muller A, Dag I, Goldgeier H, Harush O, Herzlinger G, Nebenhaus K, Valetta F, Yashuv T, Dick N. Artifact3-D: New software for accurate, objective and efficient 3D analysis and documentation of archaeological artifacts. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0268401. [PMID: 35709137 PMCID: PMC9202890 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0268401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of artifacts is fundamental to archaeological research. The features of individual artifacts are recorded, analyzed, and compared within and between contextual assemblages. Here we present and make available for academic-use Artifact3-D, a new software package comprised of a suite of analysis and documentation procedures for archaeological artifacts. We introduce it here, alongside real archaeological case studies to demonstrate its utility. Artifact3-D equips its users with a range of computational functions for accurate measurements, including orthogonal distances, surface area, volume, CoM, edge angles, asymmetry, and scar attributes. Metrics and figures for each of these measurements are easily exported for the purposes of further analysis and illustration. We test these functions on a range of real archaeological case studies pertaining to tool functionality, technological organization, manufacturing traditions, knapping techniques, and knapper skill. Here we focus on lithic artifacts, but the Artifact3-D software can be used on any artifact type to address the needs of modern archaeology. Computational methods are increasingly becoming entwined in the excavation, documentation, analysis, database creation, and publication of archaeological research. Artifact3-D offers functions to address every stage of this workflow. It equips the user with the requisite toolkit for archaeological research that is accurate, objective, repeatable and efficient. This program will help archaeological research deal with the abundant material found during excavations and will open new horizons in research trajectories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leore Grosman
- Institute of Archaeology, Mount Scopus, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
- * E-mail:
| | - Antoine Muller
- Institute of Archaeology, Mount Scopus, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Itamar Dag
- Institute of Archaeology, Mount Scopus, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Hadas Goldgeier
- Institute of Archaeology, Mount Scopus, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ortal Harush
- Institute of Archaeology, Mount Scopus, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Gadi Herzlinger
- Institute of Archaeology, Mount Scopus, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Keren Nebenhaus
- Institute of Archaeology, Mount Scopus, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Francesco Valetta
- Institute of Archaeology, Mount Scopus, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Talia Yashuv
- Institute of Archaeology, Mount Scopus, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Nir Dick
- Institute of Archaeology, Mount Scopus, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
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4
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Stone toolmaking difficulty and the evolution of hominin technological skills. Sci Rep 2022; 12:5883. [PMID: 35393496 PMCID: PMC8989887 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-09914-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Stone tools are a manifestation of the complex cognitive and dexterous skills of our hominin ancestors. As such, much research has been devoted to understanding the skill requirements of individual lithic technologies. Yet, comparing skill across different technologies, and thus across the vast timespan of the Palaeolithic, is an elusive goal. We seek to quantify a series of commensurable metrics of knapping skill across four different lithic technologies (discoids, handaxes, Levallois, and prismatic blades). To compare the requisite dexterity, coordination, and care involved in each technology, we analysed video footage and lithic material from a series of replicative knapping experiments to quantify deliberation (strike time), precision (platform area), intricacy (flake size relative to core size), and success (relative blank length). According to these four metrics, discoidal knapping appears to be easiest among the sample. Levallois knapping involved an intricate reduction sequence, but did not require as much motor control as handaxes and especially prismatic blades. Compared with the other Palaeolithic technologies, we conclude that prismatic blade knapping is set apart by being a skill intensive means of producing numerous standardised elongate end-products.
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A proof of concept for machine learning-based virtual knapping using neural networks. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19966. [PMID: 34620893 PMCID: PMC8497608 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-98755-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Prehistoric stone tools are an important source of evidence for the study of human behavioural and cognitive evolution. Archaeologists use insights from the experimental replication of lithics to understand phenomena such as the behaviours and cognitive capacities required to manufacture them. However, such experiments can require large amounts of time and raw materials, and achieving sufficient control of key variables can be difficult. A computer program able to accurately simulate stone tool production would make lithic experimentation faster, more accessible, reproducible, less biased, and may lead to reliable insights into the factors that structure the archaeological record. We present here a proof of concept for a machine learning-based virtual knapping framework capable of quickly and accurately predicting flake removals from 3D cores using a conditional adversarial neural network (CGAN). We programmatically generated a testing dataset of standardised 3D cores with flakes knapped from them. After training, the CGAN accurately predicted the length, volume, width, and shape of these flake removals using the intact core surface information alone. This demonstrates the feasibility of machine learning for investigating lithic production virtually. With a larger training sample and validation against archaeological data, virtual knapping could enable fast, cheap, and highly-reproducible virtual lithic experimentation.
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Archer W, Djakovic I, Brenet M, Bourguignon L, Presnyakova D, Schlager S, Soressi M, McPherron SP. Quantifying differences in hominin flaking technologies with 3D shape analysis. J Hum Evol 2020; 150:102912. [PMID: 33302003 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Genetic and climate-driven estimates of past population dynamics are increasingly influential in broader models of hominin migration and adaptation, yet the contribution of stone artifact variability remains more contentious. Scientists are increasingly recognizing the potential of unretouched stone flakes ('flakes') in exploring existing models of hominin behavioral evolution. This is because flakes (1) were produced by all stone tool manufacturing groups in the past, (2) are abundant from the inception of the archaeological record up into the ethnographic present, and (3) preserve under most conditions. The statistical tools of 3D geometric morphometrics capture detailed approximations of flake form that are challenging to document with conventional artifact analyses. We analyze a collection of 717 3D scans of experimentally produced flakes from 5 production strategies that were practiced by hominins through large parts of the Pleistocene and that scientists have drawn on also to make demographic arguments about past human behavior (n = 45 reduction sequences, n = 3 knappers naive toward the study objectives). First, as a proof of concept, we demonstrate that we can estimate the strategies used to produce these flakes at a high success rate even when flakes from early stages of core reduction are included. We frame the significance of this finding against archaeological classifications from several key Middle Paleolithic assemblages in France (n = 4 sites, n = 28 layers, n = 16,467 flakes). Second, we show that 3D geometric morphometrics captures subtle differences in these strategies that influence flake formation on a flake-by-flake basis and that reflect decisions made by knappers about platform selection, preparation, and core-surface management. We explore the broader potential of our model with a cross-validation approach, and we describe a means of assessing flake form on a continuum wherein variability among assemblages separated by large expanses of space and time can be meaningfully explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Will Archer
- Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, National Museum, Bloemfontein, South Africa; Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany; Department of Geology, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa.
| | - Igor Djakovic
- Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, 2311 EZ, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Michel Brenet
- INRAP, Domaine de Campagne, 24260, Campagne, France; UMR 5199 PACEA, Université Bordeaux, Bâtiment B18, 33615, Talence, France
| | | | - Darya Presnyakova
- Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology, University of Tübingen, Schloss Hohentübingen, 72070, Tübingen, Germany; Institute for the History of Material Culture, Russian Academy of Sciences, St-Petersburg, Russia
| | - Stefan Schlager
- Biological Anthropology, Faculty of Medicine, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marie Soressi
- Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, 2311 EZ, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Shannon P McPherron
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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Breyl M. Triangulating Neanderthal cognition: A tale of not seeing the forest for the trees. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2020; 12:e1545. [PMID: 32918796 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 08/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The inference of Neanderthal cognition, including their cultural and linguistic capabilities, has persisted as a fiercely debated research topic for decades. This lack of consensus is substantially based on inherent uncertainties in reconstructing prehistory out of indirect evidence as well as other methodological limitations. Further factors include systemic difficulties within interdisciplinary discourse, data artifacts, historic research biases, and the sheer scope of the relevant research. Given the degrees of freedom in interpretation ensuing from these complications, any attempt to find approximate answers to the yet unsettled pertinent discourse may not rest on single studies, but instead a careful and comprehensive interdisciplinary synthesis of findings. Triangulating Neanderthals' cognition by considering the plethora of data, diverse perspectives and aforementioned complexities present within the literature constitutes the currently most reliable pathway to tentative conclusions. While some uncertainties remain, such an approach paints the picture of an extensive shared humanity between anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals. This article is categorized under: Cognitive Biology > Evolutionary Roots of Cognition Linguistics > Evolution of Language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Breyl
- Germanistik, Komparatistik, Nordistik, Deutsch als Fremdsprache, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich (LMU), Munich, Germany
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8
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Muscle recruitment and stone tool use ergonomics across three million years of Palaeolithic technological transitions. J Hum Evol 2020; 144:102796. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 03/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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9
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de la Torre I, Mora R. Oldowan technological behaviour at HWK EE (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania). J Hum Evol 2019; 120:236-273. [PMID: 29773229 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
HWK EE (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania) is a late Oldowan site dated to ∼1.7 Ma that contains a large fossil and lithic assemblage. This paper reports on the technology of the recently excavated stone tool collection, over 18,000 pieces. Our results indicate that reduction sequences were generally short, flaking productivity was low, and knapping methods were largely simple and expedient, lacking the technical skills observed in other Oldowan assemblages. Conspicuous differences are observed in the chaînes opératoires of the three main raw materials used at HWK EE: the quartzite reduction sequence can be reconstructed in full at the site, most of the lava detached pieces are missing, and there is a preferential use of chert for retouched tools. This portrays a composite picture, where knapping expediency and low productivity are accompanied by raw material selectivity and consistent presence of retouched artefacts. Coexistence of these features in the same assemblage leads us to question the monolithic structure of the Oldowan techno-complex, and highlights the kaleidoscopic nature of technological strategies at Olduvai immediately before the earliest Acheulean handaxes appear in the sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio de la Torre
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, WC1H 0PY London, United Kingdom.
| | - Rafael Mora
- Centre d'Estudis del Patrimoni Arqueologic de la Prehistoria, Facultat de Lletres, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
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Pargeter J, Shea JJ. Going big versus going small: Lithic miniaturization in hominin lithic technology. Evol Anthropol 2019; 28:72-85. [DOI: 10.1002/evan.21775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Justin Pargeter
- Department of Anthropology Emory University Atlanta Georgia
- Palaeo‐Research Institute University of Johannesburg Auckland Park South Africa
| | - John J. Shea
- Anthropology Department & Turkana Basin Institute Stony Brook University Stony Brook New York
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11
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van Schaik CP, Pradhan GR, Tennie C. Teaching and curiosity: sequential drivers of cumulative cultural evolution in the hominin lineage. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-018-2610-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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13
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14
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Two million years of flaking stone and the evolutionary efficiency of stone tool technology. Nat Ecol Evol 2018; 2:628-633. [DOI: 10.1038/s41559-018-0488-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Zilhão J, Anesin D, Aubry T, Badal E, Cabanes D, Kehl M, Klasen N, Lucena A, Martín-Lerma I, Martínez S, Matias H, Susini D, Steier P, Wild EM, Angelucci DE, Villaverde V, Zapata J. Precise dating of the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition in Murcia (Spain) supports late Neandertal persistence in Iberia. Heliyon 2017; 3:e00435. [PMID: 29188235 PMCID: PMC5696381 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2017.e00435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The late persistence in Southern Iberia of a Neandertal-associated Middle Paleolithic is supported by the archeological stratigraphy and the radiocarbon and luminescence dating of three newly excavated localities in the Mula basin of Murcia (Spain). At Cueva Antón, Mousterian layer I-k can be no more than 37,100 years-old. At La Boja, the basal Aurignacian can be no less than 36,500 years-old. The regional Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition process is thereby bounded to the first half of the 37th millennium Before Present, in agreement with evidence from Andalusia, Gibraltar and Portugal. This chronology represents a lag of minimally 3000 years with the rest of Europe, where that transition and the associated process of Neandertal/modern human admixture took place between 40,000 and 42,000 years ago. The lag implies the presence of an effective barrier to migration and diffusion across the Ebro river depression, which, based on available paleoenvironmental indicators, would at that time have represented a major biogeographical divide. In addition, (a) the Phlegraean Fields caldera explosion, which occurred 39,850 years ago, would have stalled the Neandertal/modern human admixture front because of the population sink it generated in Central and Eastern Europe, and (b) the long period of ameliorated climate that came soon after (Greenland Interstadial 8, during which forests underwent a marked expansion in Iberian regions south of 40°N) would have enhanced the “Ebro Frontier” effect. These findings have two broader paleoanthropological implications: firstly, that, below the Ebro, the archeological record made prior to 37,000 years ago must be attributed, in all its aspects and components, to the Neandertals (or their ancestors); secondly, that modern human emergence is best seen as an uneven, punctuated process during which long-lasting barriers to gene flow and cultural diffusion could have existed across rather short distances, with attendant consequences for ancient genetics and models of human population history.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Zilhão
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain.,Universitat de Barcelona, Departament d'Història i Arqueologia, Facultat de Geografia i Història, c/Montalegre 6, 08001 Barcelona, Spain.,UNIARQ - Centro de Arqueologia da Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Letras de Lisboa, Universidade de Lisboa, Alameda da Universidade, 1600-214 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Daniela Anesin
- Università degli Studi di Trento, Dipartimento di Lettere e Filosofia, via Tommaso Gar 14, 38122 Trento, Italy
| | - Thierry Aubry
- Parque Arqueológico do Vale do Côa, Fundação Côa Parque, Rua do Museu, 5150-610 Vila Nova de Foz Côa, Portugal
| | - Ernestina Badal
- Universitat de València, Departament de Prehistòria, Arqueologia i Història Antiga, Av. Blasco Ibañez 28, 46010 València, Spain, Av. Blasco Ibañez 28, 46010 València, Spain
| | - Dan Cabanes
- Department of Anthropology, Rutgers University, Biological Sciences Building, 32 Bishop Street, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Martin Kehl
- University of Cologne, Institute of Geography, Albertus-Magnus-Platz, 50923 Cologne, Germany
| | - Nicole Klasen
- University of Cologne, Institute of Geography, Albertus-Magnus-Platz, 50923 Cologne, Germany
| | - Armando Lucena
- UNIARQ - Centro de Arqueologia da Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Letras de Lisboa, Universidade de Lisboa, Alameda da Universidade, 1600-214 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ignacio Martín-Lerma
- Universidad de Murcia, Área de Prehistoria, Facultad de Letras, Campus de La Merced, 30071 Murcia, Spain
| | - Susana Martínez
- UNIARQ - Centro de Arqueologia da Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Letras de Lisboa, Universidade de Lisboa, Alameda da Universidade, 1600-214 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Henrique Matias
- UNIARQ - Centro de Arqueologia da Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Letras de Lisboa, Universidade de Lisboa, Alameda da Universidade, 1600-214 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Davide Susini
- Università degli Studi di Trento, Dipartimento di Lettere e Filosofia, via Tommaso Gar 14, 38122 Trento, Italy.,Università di Siena, Dipartimento di Scienze fisiche, della Terra e dell'Ambiente, Strada Laterina 8, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Peter Steier
- VERA (Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator) Laboratory, Faculty of Physics - Isotope Research and Nuclear Physics, University of Vienna, Währingerstraße 17, 1090 Wien, Austria
| | - Eva Maria Wild
- VERA (Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator) Laboratory, Faculty of Physics - Isotope Research and Nuclear Physics, University of Vienna, Währingerstraße 17, 1090 Wien, Austria
| | - Diego E Angelucci
- Università degli Studi di Trento, Dipartimento di Lettere e Filosofia, via Tommaso Gar 14, 38122 Trento, Italy
| | - Valentín Villaverde
- Universitat de València, Departament de Prehistòria, Arqueologia i Història Antiga, Av. Blasco Ibañez 28, 46010 València, Spain, Av. Blasco Ibañez 28, 46010 València, Spain
| | - Josefina Zapata
- Universidad de Murcia, Área de Antropología Física, Facultad de Biología, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain
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