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Datta S, Cano M, Satyanarayana G, Liu T, Wang L, Wang J, Cheng J, Itoh K, Sharma A, Bhutto I, Kannan R, Qian J, Sinha D, Handa JT. Mitophagy initiates retrograde mitochondrial-nuclear signaling to guide retinal pigment cell heterogeneity. Autophagy 2023; 19:966-983. [PMID: 35921555 PMCID: PMC9980637 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2022.2109286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of blindness among the elderly, is without treatment for early disease. Degenerative retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cell heterogeneity is a well-recognized but understudied pathogenic factor. Due to the daily phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments, unique photo-oxidative stress, and high metabolism for maintaining vision, the RPE has robust macroautophagy/autophagy, and mitochondrial and antioxidant networks. However, the autophagy subtype, mitophagy, in the RPE and AMD is understudied. Here, we found decreased PINK1 (PTEN induced kinase 1) in perifoveal RPE of early AMD eyes. PINK1-deficient RPE have impaired mitophagy and mitochondrial function that triggers death-resistant epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). This reprogramming is mediated by novel retrograde mitochondrial-nuclear signaling (RMNS) through superoxide, NFE2L2 (NFE2 like bZIP transcription factor 2), TXNRD1 (thioredoxin reductase 1), and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-AKT (AKT serine/threonine kinase) that induced canonical transcription factors ZEB1 (zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 1) and SNAI1 (Snail family transcriptional repressor 1) and an EMT transcriptome. NFE2L2 deficiency disrupted RMNS that paradoxically normalized morphology but decreased function and viability. Thus, RPE heterogeneity is defined by the interaction of two cytoprotective pathways that is triggered by mitophagy function. By neutralizing the consequences of impaired mitophagy, an antioxidant dendrimer tropic for the RPE and mitochondria, EMT (a recognized AMD alteration) was abrogated to offer potential therapy for early AMD, a stage without treatment.Abbreviations: ACTB: actin beta; AKT: AKT serine/threonine kinase; AMD: age-related macular degeneration; CCCP: cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone; CDH1: cadherin 1; DAVID: Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery; DHE: dihydroethidium; D-NAC: N-acetyl-l-cysteine conjugated to a poly(amido amine) dendrimer; ECAR: extracellular acidification rate; EMT: epithelial-mesenchymal transition; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GSEA: Gene Set Enrichment Analysis; HSPD1: heat shock protein family D (Hsp60) member 1; IVT: intravitreal; KD: knockdown; LMNA, lamin A/C; MAP1LC3B: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; MMP: mitochondrial membrane potential; NAC: N-acetyl-l-cysteine; NQO1: NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1; NFE2L2: NFE2 like bZIP transcription factor 2; O2-: superoxide anion; OCR: oxygen consumption rate; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PINK1: PTEN induced kinase 1; RMNS: retrograde mitochondrial-nuclear signaling; ROS: reactive oxygen species; RPE: retinal pigment epithelium; SNAI1: snail family transcriptional repressor 1; TJP1: tight junction protein 1; TPP-D-NAC: triphenyl phosphinium and N-acetyl-l-cysteine conjugated to a poly(amido amine) dendrimer; TIMM23: translocase of inner mitochondrial membrane 23; TOMM20: translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane 20; Trig: trigonelline; TXNRD1: thioredoxin reductase 1; VIM: vimentin; WT: wild-type; ZEB1: zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayantan Datta
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GAUSA
| | - Marisol Cano
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ganesh Satyanarayana
- Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GAUSA
| | - Tongyun Liu
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Lei Wang
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jie Wang
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jie Cheng
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kie Itoh
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Anjali Sharma
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Imran Bhutto
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Jiang Qian
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Debasish Sinha
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - James T. Handa
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Dinh TA, Utria AF, Barry KC, Ma R, Abou-Alfa GK, Gordan JD, Jaffee EM, Scott JD, Zucman-Rossi J, O’Neill AF, Furth ME, Sethupathy P. A framework for fibrolamellar carcinoma research and clinical trials. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2022; 19:328-342. [PMID: 35190728 PMCID: PMC9516439 DOI: 10.1038/s41575-022-00580-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Fibrolamellar carcinoma (FLC), a rare, lethal hepatic cancer, occurs primarily in adolescents and young adults. Unlike hepatocellular carcinoma, FLC has no known association with viral, metabolic or chemical agents that cause cirrhosis. Currently, surgical resection is the only treatment demonstrated to achieve cure, and no standard of care exists for systemic therapy. Progress in FLC research illuminates a transition from an obscure cancer to one for which an interactive community seems poised to uncover fundamental mechanisms and initiate translation towards novel therapies. In this Roadmap, we review advances since the seminal discovery in 2014 that nearly all FLC tumours express a signature oncogene (DNAJB1-PRKACA) encoding a fusion protein (DNAJ-PKAc) in which the J-domain of a heat shock protein 40 (HSP40) co-chaperone replaces an amino-terminal segment of the catalytic subunit of the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). Important gains include increased understanding of oncogenic pathways driven by DNAJ-PKAc; identification of potential therapeutic targets; development of research models; elucidation of immune mechanisms with potential for the development of immunotherapies; and completion of the first multicentre clinical trials of targeted therapy for FLC. In each of these key areas we propose a Roadmap for future progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy A. Dinh
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.,These authors contributed equally: Timothy A. Dinh, Alan F. Utria, Kevin C. Barry
| | - Alan F. Utria
- Department of Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.,These authors contributed equally: Timothy A. Dinh, Alan F. Utria, Kevin C. Barry
| | - Kevin C. Barry
- Translational Research Program, Public Health Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA.,These authors contributed equally: Timothy A. Dinh, Alan F. Utria, Kevin C. Barry
| | - Rosanna Ma
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Ghassan K. Abou-Alfa
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.,Department of Medicine, Weill Medical College at Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - John D. Gordan
- Gastrointestinal oncology, University of California at San Francisco Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Elizabeth M. Jaffee
- Department of oncology, Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - John D. Scott
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jessica Zucman-Rossi
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Sorbonne université, Inserm, Université de Paris, Functional Genomics of Solid Tumors, Paris, France
| | - Allison F. O’Neill
- Department of Paediatric Hematology/oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Mark E. Furth
- Fibrolamellar Cancer Foundation, Greenwich, CT, USA.,;
| | - Praveen Sethupathy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.,;
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A novel screening approach comparing kinase activity of small molecule inhibitors with similar molecular structures and distinct biologic effects in triple-negative breast cancer to identify targetable signaling pathways. Anticancer Drugs 2021; 31:759-775. [PMID: 32796402 DOI: 10.1097/cad.0000000000000962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer affects women globally; the majority of breast cancer-related mortalities are due to metastasis. Acquisition of a mesenchymal phenotype has been implicated in the progression of breast cancer cells to an invasive, metastatic state. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) subtypes have high rates of metastases, recurrence, and have poorer prognoses compared to other breast cancer types, partially due to lack of commonly targeted receptors. Kinases have diverse and pivotal functions in metastasis in TNBC, and discovery of new kinase targets for TNBC is warranted. We previously used a screening approach to identify intermediate-synthesis nonpotent, nonselective small-molecule inhibitors from the Published Kinase Inhibitor Set that reversed the mesenchymal phenotype in TNBC cells. Two of these inhibitors (GSK346294A and GSK448459A) are structurally similar, but have unique kinase activity profiles and exhibited differential biologic effects on TNBC cells, specifically on epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Here, we further interrogate these effects and compare activity of these inhibitors on transwell migration, gene (qRT-PCR) and protein (western blot) expressions, and cancer stem cell-like behavior. We incorporated translational patient-derived xenograft models in these studies, and we focused on the lead inhibitor hit, GSK346294A, to demonstrate the utility of our comparative analysis as a screening modality to identify novel kinase targets and signaling pathways to pursue in TNBC. This study introduces a new method for discovering novel kinase targets that reverse the EMT phenotype; this screening approach can be applied to all cancer types and is not limited to breast cancer.
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Matossian MD, Elliott S, Rhodes LV, Martin EC, Hoang VT, Burks HE, Zuercher WJ, Drewry DH, Collins-Burow BM, Burow ME. Application of a small molecule inhibitor screen approach to identify CXCR4 downstream signaling pathways that promote a mesenchymal and fulvestrant-resistant phenotype in breast cancer cells. Oncol Lett 2021; 21:380. [PMID: 33777204 PMCID: PMC7988660 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2021.12641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) and its ligand stromal-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) have well-characterized functions in cancer metastasis; however, the specific mechanisms through which CXCR4 promotes a metastatic and drug-resistant phenotype remain widely unknown. The aim of the present study was to demonstrate the application of a phenotypic screening approach using a small molecule inhibitor library to identify potential CXCR4-mediated signaling pathways. The present study demonstrated a new application of the Published Kinase Inhibitor Set (PKIS), a library of small molecule inhibitors from diverse chemotype series with varying levels of selectivity, in a phenotypic medium-throughput screen to identify potential mechanisms to pursue. Crystal violet staining and brightfield microscopy were employed to evaluate relative cell survival and changes to cell morphology in the screens. ‘Hits’ or lead active compounds in the first screen were PKIS inhibitors that reversed mesenchymal morphologies in CXCR4-activated breast cancer cells without the COOH-terminal domain (MCF-7-CXCR4-ΔCTD) and in the phenotypically mesenchymal triple-negative breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231, BT-549 and MDA-MB-157), used as positive controls. In a following screen, the phenotypic and cell viability screen was used with a positive control that was both morphologically mesenchymal and had acquired fulvestrant resistance. Compounds within the same chemotype series were identified that exhibited biological activity in the screens, the ‘active’ inhibitors, were compared with inactive compounds. Relative kinase activity was obtained using published datasets to discover candidate kinase targets responsible for CXCR4 activity. MAP4K4 and MINK reversed both the mesenchymal and drug-resistant phenotypes, NEK9 and DYRK2 only reversed the mesenchymal morphology, and kinases, including ROS, LCK, HCK and LTK, altered the fulvestrant-resistant phenotype. Oligoarray experiments revealed pathways affected in CXCR4-activated cells, and these pathways were compared with the present screening approach to validate our screening tool. The oligoarray approach identified the integrin-mediated, ephrin B-related, RhoA, RAC1 and ErbB signaling pathways to be upregulated in MCF-7-CXCR4-ΔCTD cells, with ephrin B signaling also identified in the PKIS phenotypic screen. The present screening tool may be used to discover potential mechanisms of targeted signaling pathways in solid cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarite D Matossian
- Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Steven Elliott
- Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Lyndsay V Rhodes
- Department of Biology, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL 33965, USA
| | - Elizabeth C Martin
- Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering Biology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Van T Hoang
- Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Hope E Burks
- Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - William J Zuercher
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - David H Drewry
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Bridgette M Collins-Burow
- Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Matthew E Burow
- Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
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Vaseva AV, Blake DR, Gilbert TSK, Ng S, Hostetter G, Azam SH, Ozkan-Dagliyan I, Gautam P, Bryant KL, Pearce KH, Herring LE, Han H, Graves LM, Witkiewicz AK, Knudsen ES, Pecot CV, Rashid N, Houghton PJ, Wennerberg K, Cox AD, Der CJ. KRAS Suppression-Induced Degradation of MYC Is Antagonized by a MEK5-ERK5 Compensatory Mechanism. Cancer Cell 2018; 34:807-822.e7. [PMID: 30423298 PMCID: PMC6321749 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2018.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Our recent ERK1/2 inhibitor analyses in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) indicated ERK1/2-independent mechanisms maintaining MYC protein stability. To identify these mechanisms, we determined the signaling networks by which mutant KRAS regulates MYC. Acute KRAS suppression caused rapid proteasome-dependent loss of MYC protein, through both ERK1/2-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Surprisingly, MYC degradation was independent of PI3K-AKT-GSK3β signaling and the E3 ligase FBWX7. We then established and applied a high-throughput screen for MYC protein degradation and performed a kinome-wide proteomics screen. We identified an ERK1/2-inhibition-induced feedforward mechanism dependent on EGFR and SRC, leading to ERK5 activation and phosphorylation of MYC at S62, preventing degradation. Concurrent inhibition of ERK1/2 and ERK5 disrupted this mechanism, synergistically causing loss of MYC and suppressing PDAC growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelina V Vaseva
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; The Greehey Children's Cancer Research Institute, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Devon R Blake
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Thomas S K Gilbert
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; UNC Michael Hooker Proteomics Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Serina Ng
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Roswell Park Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
| | - Galen Hostetter
- Pathology and Biorepository Core, The Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Salma H Azam
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Irem Ozkan-Dagliyan
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Prson Gautam
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, University of Helsinki, 00290 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kirsten L Bryant
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Kenneth H Pearce
- Center for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Laura E Herring
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; UNC Michael Hooker Proteomics Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Haiyong Han
- Molecular Medicine Division, Translational Genomic Research Institute, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA
| | - Lee M Graves
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | | | - Erik S Knudsen
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Roswell Park Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
| | - Chad V Pecot
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Naim Rashid
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Peter J Houghton
- The Greehey Children's Cancer Research Institute, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Krister Wennerberg
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, University of Helsinki, 00290 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Adrienne D Cox
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Radiation Oncology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Channing J Der
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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Zafar A, Singh S, Satija YK, Saluja D, Naseem I. Deciphering the molecular mechanism underlying anticancer activity of coumestrol in triple-negative breast cancer cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2017; 46:19-28. [PMID: 28986287 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Revised: 08/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) represents the highly aggressive subgroup of breast cancers with poor prognosis due to absence of estrogen receptor (ER). Therefore, alternative targeted therapies are required against ER-negative breast cancers. Coumestrol, a phytoestrogen inhibits cell growth of ER-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells; the exact mechanism has not yet been reported. Unlike normal cells, cancer cells contain elevated copper which play an integral role in angiogenesis. The current focus of the work was to identify any possible role of copper in coumestrol cytotoxic action against breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. Results demonstrated that coumestrol inhibited cell viability, induced ROS generation, DNA damage, G1/S cell cycle arrest, up-regulation of Bax and apoptosis induction via caspase-dependent mitochondrial mediated pathway in MDA-MB-231 cells. Further, addition of copper chelator, neocuproine and ROS scavenger, N-acetyl cysteine were ineffective in abrogating coumestrol-mediated apoptosis. This suggests non-involvement of copper and ROS in coumestrol-induced apoptosis. To account for coumestrol-mediated up-regulation of Bax and apoptosis induction, direct binding potential between coumestrol and Bax/Bcl-2 was studied using in silico molecular docking studies. We propose that coumestrol directly enters cells and combines with Bax/Bcl-2 to alter their structures, thereby causing Bax binding to the outer mitochondrial membrane and Bcl-2 release from the mitochondria to initiate apoptosis. Thus, non-copper targeted ROS independent DNA damage is the central mechanism of coumestrol in ER-negative MDA-MB-231 cells. These findings will be useful in better understanding of anticancer mechanisms of coumestrol and establishing it as a lead molecule for TNBC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atif Zafar
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Swarnendra Singh
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ansari Nagar, New Delhi 110 029, India
| | - Yatendra Kumar Satija
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Centre for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, New Delhi 110007, India
| | - Daman Saluja
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Centre for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, New Delhi 110007, India
| | - Imrana Naseem
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
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