The relationship between intradialytic hypotension and vascular calcification in hemodialysis patients

Effect of Intradialytic Exercise on Cardiovascular Outcomes in Maintenance Hemodialysis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Key Points

Individuals receiving hemodialysis have high rates of cardiovascular disease not explained by traditional cardiovascular risk factors. Intradialytic exercise improves cardiovascular outcomes, including arterial resistance, BP, and heart rate variability. Clinicians should consider including intradialytic aerobic exercise programs in hemodialysis care to supplement broader treatment plans.

Background

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death among people with kidney failure on hemodialysis, for whom improving cardiovascular health is a research priority. Intradialytic myocardial stunning is common and associated with adverse cardiovascular events. Intradialytic exercise may mitigate intradialytic myocardial stunning and improve cardiovascular structure and function. This systematic review investigated the effect of intradialytic exercise on cardiovascular outcomes in adults undergoing maintenance hemodialysis (PROSPERO CRD42018103118).

Methods

Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, we systematically searched MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL, SportDiscus, and PEDro databases from 1960 until June 2022, for randomized and nonrandomized studies investigating the effect of intradialytic exercise programs on objective cardiovascular outcomes, prespecified as primary or secondary outcomes. The primary outcome was arterial resistance.

Results

Of 10,837 references identified, 32 met eligibility criteria. These studies investigated the effect of intradialytic exercise on arterial resistance (eight studies), BP (20 studies), myocardial structure and function (seven studies), endothelial function (two studies), sympathetic overactivity (nine studies), biomarkers of cardiac injury (three studies), and cardiovascular hospitalization and mortality (two studies). Most studies used aerobic exercise as the intervention and usual care (no exercise) controls. Meta-analysis of intradialytic exercise versus usual care resulted in a statistically significant reduction in arterial resistance measured by pulse wave velocity with mean difference −1.63 m/s (95% confidence interval, −2.51 to −0.75). Meta-analyses for diastolic BP, left ventricular ejection fraction, and low-frequency/high-frequency ratio measure of heart rate variability also showed statistically significant improvements with exercise. There was no significant difference in change in systolic BP, augmentation index, and left ventricular mass index between groups.

Conclusions

Intradialytic exercise programming resulted in a clinically meaningful improvement to pulse wave velocity, a component of arterial resistance. Improvements in several physiologic measures of cardiovascular health, including diastolic BP, left ventricular ejection fraction, and heart rate variability measured by the low-frequency/high-frequency ratio were also observed. The effects of intradialytic exercise on major adverse cardiovascular events remains uncertain.

Association between monocyte lymphocyte ratio and abdominal aortic calcification in US adults: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to evaluate the association between Monocyte Lymphocyte Ratio (MLR) and Abdominal Aortic Calcification (AAC) in adults over 40 years of age in the United States.

METHODS

Data were collected from the 2013-2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). AAC was quantified by the Kauppila score system based on dual-energy X-Ray absorptiometry. Severe AAC was defined as a total AAC score > 6. The lymphocyte count and monocyte count can be directly obtained from laboratory data files. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to determine the association between MLR and the AAC score and severe AAC.

RESULTS

A total of 3,045 participants were included in the present study. After adjusting for multiple covariates, MLR was positively associated with higher AAC score (β = 0.21, 95% CI 0.07, 0.34, p = 0.0032) and the odds of severe AAC increased by 14% per 0.1 unit increase in the MLR (OR = 1.14, 95% CI 1.00, 1.31, p = 0.0541). The Odds Ratio (OR) (95% CI) of severe AAC for participants in MLR tertile 3 was 1.88 (1.02, 3.47) compared with those in tertile 1 (p for trend = 0.0341). Subgroup analyses showed that a stronger association was detected in the elderly compared with non-elderly (p for interaction = 0.0346) and diabetes compared with non-diabetes (borderline significant p for interaction = 0.0578).

CONCLUSION

In adults in the United States, MLR was associated with higher AAC scores and a higher probability of severe AAC. MLR may become a promising tool to predict the risk of AAC.

Mean annual intradialytic blood pressure decline and cardiovascular events in Japanese patients on maintenance hemodialysis

An intradialytic systolic blood pressure (SBP) decline, which defines intradialytic hypotension, may be associated with higher all-cause mortality. However, in Japanese patients on hemodialysis (HD), the association between intradialytic SBP decline and patient outcomes is unclear. This retrospective cohort study included 307 Japanese patients undergoing HD over 1 year in three dialysis clinics and evaluated the association between the mean annual intradialytic SBP decline (predialysis SBP-nadir intradialytic SBP) and clinical outcomes, including major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs; cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction or unstable angina, stroke, heart failure, and other severe cardiovascular events requiring hospitalization) by following up for 2 years. The mean annual intradialytic SBP decline was 24.2 (25-75th percentile, 18.3-35.0) mmHg. In the model fully adjusted for intradialytic SBP decline tertile group (T1, <20.4 mmHg; T2, 20.4 to <29.9 mmHg; T3, ≥29.9 mmHg), predialysis SBP, age, sex, HD vintage, Charlson comorbidity index, ultrafiltration rate, use of renin-angiotensin system inhibitors, corrected calcium, phosphorus, human atrial natriuretic peptide, geriatric nutritional risk index, normalized protein catabolism rate, C-reactive protein, hemoglobin, and use of pressor agents, Cox regression analyses showed that the hazard ratio (HR) was significantly higher for T3 than for T1 for MACEs (HR, 2.38; 95% confidence interval 1.12-5.09) and all-cause hospitalization (HR, 1.68; 95% confidence interval 1.03-2.74). Therefore, in Japanese patients on HD, a greater intradialytic SBP decline was associated with worse clinical outcomes. Further studies are warranted to investigate whether interventions to attenuate the intradialytic SBP decline will improve the prognosis of Japanese patients on HD.

Combined cardiomegaly and aortic arch calcification predict mortality in hemodialysis patients

INTRODUCTION

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between cardiomegaly and aortic arch calcification (AAC) and overall/cardiovascular mortality in hemodialysis patients.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study and enrolled patients who underwent initial hemodialysis. Cardiomegaly and AAC were determined by chest radiography and classified into four groups according to cross-classification of cardiothoracic ratio (CTR) of 0.5 and lower/higher grade AAC (LGAAC/HGAAC). The relationship between these groups and mortality was then analyzed by Cox proportional hazards model.

RESULTS

In multivariate Cox regression analysis, those in CTR ≤ 0.5 and HGAAC [hazard ratio (95% confidence interval): 2.07 (1.14-3.77)], CTR > 0.5 & LGAAC [3.60 (2.07-6.25)] and CTR > 0.5 & HGAAC [3.42 (2.03-5.77)] were significantly associated with overall mortality; while those in CTR > 0.5 & LGAAC [2.81 (1.28-6.19)] and CTR > 0.5 & HGAAC [2.32 (1.09-4.95)] were significantly related to cardiovascular mortality.

CONCLUSION

Combined cardiomegaly and AAC predicted overall and cardiovascular mortality in hemodialysis patients.

Circumferential Strain as a Marker of Vessel Reactivity in Patients with Intradialytic Hypotension

Background and Objectives: Intradialytic hypotension (IDH) complicates 4 to 39.9% of hemodialysis (HD) sessions. Vessels' reactivity disturbances may be responsible for this complication. Two-dimensional speckle tracking is used to assess arterial circumferential strain (CS) as a marker of the effectiveness of the cardiovascular response to the reduction of circulating plasma. Materials and Methods: The common carotid artery (CCA) and common iliac artery (CIA) CSs were recorded using ultrasonography in 68 chronically dialyzed patients before and after one HD session. Results: In patients with IDH episodes (n = 26), the CCA-CS was significantly lower both before (6.28 ± 2.34 vs. 4.63 ± 1.74 p = 0.003) and after HD (5.00 (3.53-6.78) vs. 3.79 ± 1.47 p = 0.010) than it was in patients without this complication. No relationship was observed between CIA-CS and IDH. IDH patients had a significantly higher UF rate; however, they did not differ compared to complication-free patients either in anthropometric or laboratory parameters. Conclusions: Patients with IDH were characterized by lower pre- and post-HD circumferential strain of the common carotid artery. The lower CCA-CS showed that impaired vascular reactivity is one of the most important risk factors for this complication's occurrence.

Physiological Mechanisms of Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease in End-Stage Kidney Disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In this article, we summarize recent advances in understanding hypertension and cardiovascular disease in patients with end-stage kidney disease.

RECENT FINDINGS

Factors such as anemia, valvular and vascular calcification, vasoconstrictors, uremic toxins, hypoglycemia, carbamylated proteins, oxidative stress, and inflammation have all been associated with the progression of cardiovascular disease in end-stage kidney disease but the causality of these mechanisms has not been proven. The high risk of cardiovascular mortality has not improved as in the general population despite many advancements in cardiovascular care over the last two decades. Mechanisms that increase hypertension risk in these patients are centered on the control of extracellular fluid volume; however, over-correction of volume with dialysis can increase risks of intradialytic hypotension and death in these patients. This review presents both recent and classic work that increases our understanding of hypertension and cardiovascular disease in end-stage kidney disease.

Seasonal variation and predictors of intradialytic blood pressure decline: a retrospective cohort study

The risk factors for intradialytic systolic blood pressure decline remain poorly understood. We aimed to identify clinical and laboratory predictors of the intradialytic systolic blood pressure decline, considering its seasonal variation. In a retrospective cohort of 47,219 hemodialysis sessions of 307 patients undergoing hemodialysis over one year in three dialysis clinics, the seasonal variation and the predictors of intradialytic systolic blood pressure decline (predialysis systolic blood pressure--nadir intradialytic systolic blood pressure) were assessed using cosinor analysis and linear mixed models adjusted for baseline or monthly hemodialysis-related variables, respectively. The intradialytic systolic blood pressure decline was greatest and least in the winter and summer, respectively, showing a clear seasonal pattern. In both models adjusted for baseline and monthly hemodialysis-related parameters, calcium channel blocker use was associated with a smaller decline (-4.58 [95% confidence interval (CI), -5.84 to -3.33], P < 0.001; -3.66 [95% CI, -5.69 to -1.64], P < 0.001) and α blocker use, with a greater decline (3.25 [95% CI, 1.53-4.97], P < 0.001; 3.57 [95% CI, 1.08-6.06], P = 0.005). Baseline and monthly serum phosphorus levels were positively correlated with the decline (1.55 [95% CI, 0.30-2.80], P = 0.02; 0.59 [95% CI, 0.16-1.00], P = 0.007), and baseline and monthly normalized protein catabolic rates were inversely correlated (respectively, -22.41 [95% CI, -33.53 to -11.28], P < 0.001; 9.65 [95% CI, 4.60-14.70], P < 0.001). In conclusion, calcium channel blocker use, α blocker avoidance, and serum phosphorus-lowering therapy may attenuate the intradialytic systolic blood pressure decline and should be investigated in prospective trials.

Clinical significance of central systolic blood pressure in LV diastolic dysfunction and CV mortality

Background and aims

Cardiovascular (CV) disease is the major cause of death in patients with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). Left ventricular (LV) diastolic dysfunction reflects LV pressure overload and is common in patients with ESKD. Recently, there have been studies on the usefulness of central blood pressure (BP); however, the relationship between central BP and LV diastolic dysfunction is not clear in dialysis patients with preserved systolic function. The purpose of this study was to investigate the clinical implication of central BP on LV diastolic dysfunction and CV mortality in the ESKD patients with preserved LV systolic function.

Methods

This prospective observational cohort study investigated the effect of LV diastolic dysfunction on CV mortality in the ESKD patients with preserved systolic function using echocardiography. Vascular calcification was evaluated using the abdominal aortic calcification score, and aortic stiffness was determined by measuring pulse wave velocity (PWV). The predictors of CV mortality were analyzed using Cox proportional hazard analysis.

Results

The subjects were comprised of 61 patients, with an average age of 54 years, 20 males (32.8%), and 25 diabetics (41.0%). There were 39 patients on hemodialysis and 22 patients receiving peritoneal dialysis treatment. During the mean follow-up period of 79.3 months, 16 patients (26.2%) died, and 7 patients (11.4%) died of CV events. The central systolic BP and diabetes were independent risk factors for LV diastolic dysfunction. In addition, patients with LV diastolic dysfunction had an increased CV mortality. When left atrial volume index and PWV were adjusted, the E/E’ ratio was found to be a predictor of CV mortality.

Conclusions

Central systolic BP and diabetes were found to be significant risk factors for LV diastolic dysfunction. LV diastolic dysfunction can independently predict CV mortality in dialysis patients with preserved LV systolic function.

Low central blood pressure and sympathetic activity predispose for the development of intradialytic hypotension

Intradialytic hypotension (IDH) may lead to a poor life quality and was associated with cardiovascular mortality in patients under hemodialysis. This study investigated the autonomic nerve and cardiovascular function in the IDH episodes.In this case-control study, 70 end stage renal disease patients (198 visits) were recruited. Pulse wave analysis and heart rate variability were evaluated before hemodialysis. Two definitions of IDH were confirmed by medical records. IDH-f indicated a drop of systolic blood pressure or mean arterial pressure, accompanied with symptoms; IDH-n indicated a low nadir systolic pressure during the hemodialysis. All parameters were evaluated for the possible predisposing factors under each definition.A total of 24 IDH-f and 37 IDH-n were noted in 177 visits. For both definitions, central pulse pressure seemed to be a consistent predisposing factor. Furthermore, lower sympathetic activity (odds ratio [OR] 0.55; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.35-0.87), lower pulse pressure (OR 0.95; 95% CI 0.92-0.98), and higher augmentation index (OR 17.36; 95% CI 1.48-204.10) were the possible predisposing factors for IDH-f. On the contrary, lower mean arterial pressure (OR 0.87; 95% CI 0.78-0.98) was identified as the possible factor for IDH-n.It was suggested that the lower central pulse pressure and sympathetic activity might be involved in the development of IDH.

Serum Phosphorus Levels are Associated with Intradialytic Hypotension in Hemodialysis Patients

BACKGROUND

Intradialytic hypotension (IDH) is a common serious complication in hemodialysis (HD) patients. Hyperphosphatemia is also common in HD patients and promotes vascular calcification. Given the association between vascular calcification and IDH, we investigated the association between IDH and serum phosphorus in HD patients.

METHODS

We enrolled 173 patients who received HD for 3 months or more. IDH was defined as a nadir systolic blood pressure (SBP) <90 mm Hg or as a decrease in SBP ≥20 mm Hg or a decrease in mean arterial pressure by 10 mm Hg with the occurrence of hypotension-related symptoms requiring intervention. Serum phosphorus levels were analyzed both as a continuous variable and as a categorical variable.

RESULTS

IDH occurred in 40 (23.1%) of the 173 patients. The mean phosphorus level was 4.9 mg/dL. A 1 mg/dL higher serum phosphorus resulted in a 2.1-fold greater odds of IDH. The fully adjusted odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were 2.11 (1.48-3.01). High categorized phosphorus levels were also associated with IDH. The highest tertile of serum phosphorus was associated with 6.5-fold greater odds of developing IDH compared to the referent group (the middle tertile of serum phosphorus, 4.0-<5.3 mg/dL); the fully adjusted OR (95% CIs) were 6.53 (2.23-19.09). In subgroup analyses, diabetes and pre-dialysis SBP modified the association between IDH and phosphorus levels, with a more pronounced association in diabetic patients and pre-dialysis SBP ≥140 mm Hg.

CONCLUSION

In HD patients, higher phosphorus levels were associated with an increased occurrence of IDH.

Prognostic Value of Abdominal Aortic Calcification: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies

Background The prognostic importance of abdominal aortic calcification (AAC) viewed on noninvasive imaging modalities remains uncertain. Methods and Results We searched electronic databases (MEDLINE and Embase) until March 2018. Multiple reviewers identified prospective studies reporting AAC and incident cardiovascular events or all-cause mortality. Two independent reviewers assessed eligibility and risk of bias and extracted data. Summary risk ratios (RRs) were estimated using random-effects models comparing the higher AAC groups combined (any or more advanced AAC) to the lowest reported AAC group. We identified 52 studies (46 cohorts, 36 092 participants); only studies of patients with chronic kidney disease (57%) and the general older-elderly (median, 68 years; range, 60-80 years) populations (26%) had sufficient data to meta-analyze. People with any or more advanced AAC had higher risk of cardiovascular events (RR, 1.83; 95% CI, 1.40-2.39), fatal cardiovascular events (RR, 1.85; 95% CI, 1.44-2.39), and all-cause mortality (RR, 1.98; 95% CI, 1.55-2.53). Patients with chronic kidney disease with any or more advanced AAC had a higher risk of cardiovascular events (RR, 3.47; 95% CI, 2.21-5.45), fatal cardiovascular events (RR, 3.68; 95% CI, 2.32-5.84), and all-cause mortality (RR, 2.40; 95% CI, 1.95-2.97). Conclusions Higher-risk populations, such as the elderly and those with chronic kidney disease with AAC have substantially greater risk of future cardiovascular events and poorer prognosis. Providing information on AAC may help clinicians understand and manage patients' cardiovascular risk better.

An update review of intradialytic hypotension: concept, risk factors, clinical implications and management

Intradialytic hypotension (IDH) is a frequent and serious complication of chronic haemodialysis, linked to adverse long-term outcomes including increased cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. IDH is the end result of the interaction between ultrafiltration rate (UFR), cardiac output and arteriolar tone. Thus excessive ultrafiltration may decrease the cardiac output, especially when compensatory mechanisms (heart rate, myocardial contractility, vascular tone and splanchnic flow shifts) fail to be optimally recruited. The repeated disruption of end-organ perfusion in IDH may lead to various adverse clinical outcomes affecting the heart, central nervous system, kidney and gastrointestinal system. Potential interventions to decrease the incidence or severity of IDH include optimization of the dialysis prescription (cool dialysate, UFR, sodium profiling and high-flux haemofiltration), interventions during the dialysis session (midodrine, mannitol, food intake, intradialytic exercise and intermittent pneumatic compression of the lower limbs) and interventions in the interdialysis period (lower interdialytic weight gain and blood pressure–lowering drugs). However, the evidence base for many of these interventions is thin and optimal prevention and management of IDH awaits further clinical investigation. Developing a consensus definition of IDH will facilitate clinical research. We review the most recent findings on risk factors, pathophysiology and management of IDH and, based on this, we call for a new consensus definition of IDH based on clinical outcomes and define a roadmap for IDH research.

Impacts of Coronary Artery Calcification on Intradialytic Blood Pressure Patterns in Patients Receiving Maintenance Hemodialysis

Intradialytic blood pressure abnormalities are associated with adverse outcomes in patients with end-stage renal disease on dialysis. Vascular calcification is a common complicating feature, but whether this complication results in intradialytic blood pressure abnormalities remains uncertain. Therefore, this study investigated the relationship between coronary artery calcium score and intradialytic blood pressure abnormalities in patients with end-stage renal disease on maintenance hemodialysis. Thirty-six patients who received nongated chest computed tomography scans were included. Intradialytic hypotension was defined as a minimum intradialytic systolic blood pressure of <100 mmHg or a pre-dialysis blood pressure – minimum intradialytic systolic blood pressure >30 mmHg. Intradialytic hypertension was defined as >10 mmHg increase in systolic blood pressure (pre- to post-dialysis). Patients were classified as 22 (61.1%) with coronary artery calcium score <400 and 14 (38.9%) with coronary artery calcium score ≥400. Median systolic and diastolic blood pressures were equivalent, but median pulse pressure was higher in patients with coronary artery calcium score ≥400 than in those with scores <400. Coronary artery calcium score was comparable according to both intradialytic hypotension and hypertension, and had no correlation with systolic blood pressure fall and nadir systolic blood pressure. Coronary artery calcium score predicted the occurrence of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality (hazard ratio 1.001 and 1.001; p=0.058 and 0.010). Coronary vascular calcification could be irrelevant to intradialytic blood pressure abnormalities in patients with end-stage renal disease on dialysis.

Static intra-access pressure ratio and cardiovascular events in patients undergoing haemodialysis

Static intra-access pressure ratio (SIAPR) measurement, using haemodialysis machine transducers, is the vascular access surveillance method in patients undergoing haemodialysis. However, little is known about the relationship between the SIAPR and arterial stiffness, and the clinical usefulness of the SIAPR in predicting cardiovascular events. A total of 209 patients undergoing maintenance haemodialysis were evaluated. The SIAPRs ranged from 0.01 to 0.52 (median: 0.23). When the patients were divided into two groups according to their median of SIAPR, the incidence of previous cardiovascular disease, E/E' ratio, and brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity were significantly higher in the patients with SIAPRs of ≤0.23 than in those with SIAPRs of >0.23. Conversely, patients with worse comorbid status had a lower SIAPR than patients without it. In the Kaplan-Meier analysis, the cumulative incidence of cardiovascular events was significantly higher in the patients with SIAPRs of ≤0.23 than in those with SIAPRs of >0.23 (P < 0.001). In the multiple Cox regression analysis, an increase in the SIAPR was associated with a reduced risk for cardiovascular events [hazard ratio: 0.36, 95% confidence interval: 0.21-0.60, P = 0.001]. Therefore, a low SIAPR related with arterial stiffness was a predictor for cardiovascular events.

Clinical research on individualized hemodialysis preventing unconventional hypotension in diabetic nephropathy patient

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of individualized hemodialysis for unconventional hypotension in diabetic nephropathy patients.

METHODS

A total of 60 patients were selected and randomly divided into study group and control group. The control group used the standard dialysis model, while the study group used the individualized hemodialysis scheme, in which the dialysis was performed using an individualized dialysis machine temperature control, pattern of natrium, and pattern of step ultrafiltration in combination with dialysate-containing glucose.

RESULTS

The total occurrence rate of hypotension, dry weight standard-reaching rate, and blood quality during and after dialysis in the study group were superior to those in the control group (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the symptom scores in the study group (dizziness score, chest distress score, sweating score, muscle spasm score, gastrointestinal symptom score, and temporary mind change score) were lower than those in the control group (P < 0.05). The serum sodium, potassium, and chloride concentration in these two groups after dialysis was not statistically different (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The combined application of low temperature, pattern of natrium, pattern of step ultrafiltration, and dialysate-containing glucose individualization is safe and effective for preventing and controlling the occurrence of intradialytic hypotension (IDH), improve symptoms, and improve the dry weight standard-reaching rate.

The Prevalence of Intradialytic Hypotension in Patients on Conventional Hemodialysis: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Intradialytic hypotension (IDH) is considered to be a frequent complication of hemodialysis (HD) and is associated with symptom burden, increased incidence of access failure, cardiovascular events, and higher mortality. This systematic literature review aims to analyse studies that investigated the prevalence of IDH. A complicating factor herein is that many different definitions of IDH are used in literature.

METHODS

A systematic literature search from databases, Medline, Cinahl, EMBASE, and the Cochrane library to identify studies reporting on the actual prevalence of IDH was conducted. Studies were categorized by the type of definition used for the prevalence of IDH. A meta-analysis of the prevalence of IDH was performed.

RESULTS

In a meta-analysis comprising 4 studies including 1,694 patients and 4 studies including 13,189 patients, the prevalence of HD sessions complicated by IDH was 10.1 and 11.6% for the European Best Practice Guideline (EBPG) definition and the Nadir <90 definition, respectively. The proportion of patients with frequent IDH could not reliably be established because of the wide range in cutoff values that were used to identify patients with frequent IDH. There was a large variety in the prevalence of symptoms and interventions. Major risk factors associated with IDH across studies were diabetes, a higher interdialytic weight gain, female gender, and lower body weight.

CONCLUSION

Our meta-analysis suggests that the prevalence of IDH is lower than 12% for both the EBPG and the Nadir <90 definition which is much lower than stated in most reviews.

Malnutrition, inflammation, progression of vascular calcification and survival: Inter-relationships in hemodialysis patients

Background and aims

Malnutrition and inflammation are closely linked to vascular calcification (VC), the severity of which correlate with adverse outcome. However, there were few studies on the interplay between malnutrition, inflammation and VC progression, rather than VC presence per se. We aimed to determine the relationship of malnutrition, inflammation, abdominal aortic calcification (AAC) progression with survival in hemodialysis (HD) patients.

Methods

Malnutrition and inflammation were defined as low serum albumin (< 40 g/L) and high hs-CRP (≥ 28.57 nmol/L), respectively. We defined AAC progression as an increase in AAC score using lateral lumbar radiography at both baseline and one year later. Patients were followed up to investigate the impact of AAC progression on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality.

Results

AAC progressed in 54.6% of 97 patients (mean age 58.2±11.7 years, 41.2% men) at 1-year follow-up. Hypoalbuminemia (Odds ratio 3.296; 95% confidence interval 1.178–9.222), hs-CRP (1.561; 1.038–2.348), low LDL-cholesterol (0.976; 0.955–0.996), and the presence of baseline AAC (10.136; 3.173–32.386) were significant risk factors for AAC progression. During the mean follow-up period of 5.9 years, 38(39.2%) patients died and 27(71.0%) of them died of cardiovascular disease. Multivariate Cox regression analysis adjusted for old age, diabetes, cardiovascular history, and hypoalbuminemia determined that AAC progression was an independent predictor of all-cause mortality (2.294; 1.054–4.994).

Conclusions

Malnutrition and inflammation were significantly associated with AAC progression. AAC progression is more informative than AAC presence at a given time-point as a predictor of all-cause mortality in patients on maintenance HD.