Schema therapy for borderline personality disorder: A qualitative study of patients' perceptions

The Subjective Experience of the Punitive Parent Mode in Individuals With Borderline Personality Disorder Following Schema Therapy: A Qualitative Study

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is often characterized by self-critical and punitive thoughts, emotions, beliefs and behaviours, conceptualized in schema therapy (ST) as the punitive parent mode (PPM). This mode involves internalized punitive messages from childhood from the behaviour and reactions of significant others, leading to self-hatred, guilt and self-denial. Although patients with BPD frequently report auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs) as manifestations of the PPM, this phenomenon is often overlooked in ST studies. We conducted semistructured interviews with 16 (ex)patients (63% female) from two Dutch mental health institutions to explore their experiences with the PPM before, during and after ST. An independent, double-coded systematic content analysis was performed. Approximately half of the participants reported AVHs linked to the PPM before therapy. The patients characterized the PPM by pervasive self-critical messages, contributing to intense emotional and physical distress and maladaptive coping strategies. Participants reported that ST techniques, including group therapy, imagery rescripting (ImRs) and the empty chair technique (ECT), effectively reduced the power and credibility of the PPM, including AVHs. The self-reported improvements included more adaptive coping mechanisms, increased social support and a general experience of reduced PPM. This study highlights the prevalence of the PPM as AVHs in individuals with BPD and demonstrates the efficacy of ST in reducing the impact of PPM, including in cases involving AVHs. Clinical implications include the need for relapse prevention plans and further exploration into how ST's effects can be enhanced. Future research should explore the broader spectrum of psychotic experiences in BPD and consider integrating PPM-related AVHs into the assessment and treatment of BPD.

A mixed methods study of schema modes amongst people living with eating disorders

BACKGROUND

Schema therapy is promising for people with eating disorders, especially those unresponsive to cognitive behavioural therapy. Complex underlying psychological constructs include dysfunctional schemas and maladaptive modes. This study aimed to explore people living with eating disorders' schema modes and their identification with and understanding of their high scoring modes.

METHODS

Sixteen women with enduring eating disorders without prior exposure to schema therapy completed the schema mode inventory for eating disorders short form (SMI-ED-SF), then participated in semi-structured interviews discussing their high scoring modes. Interviews were analysed by thematic analysis.

RESULTS

All participants scored above clinical concern on at least one maladaptive mode and many scored high on multiple modes, most commonly Demanding Mode, Vulnerable Child and Detached Self-Soother. Qualitatively, four themes emerged: 1) Adverse family environments related to (a) trauma and the vulnerable and angry child and (b) unrealistically high standards; 2) Mode effects on (a) everyday life and (b) disordered eating; 3) Modes are psychologically protective in (a) avoiding emotion by detachment and soothing, (b) people pleasing by compliance and surrender; 4) Help seeking including (a) barriers to recovery from an eating disorder, (b) dissatisfaction with interventions experienced to date, (c) schema therapy as a promising alternative.

DISCUSSION

Participants recognised and identified with their high scoring schema modes. After negative experiences with previous interventions, they considered schema therapy to be a promising alternative that could understand and work on their deeper psychological issues. This suggests that schema modes are a promising way of understanding and working with enduring eating disorders.

Group schema therapy for personality disorders: Systematic review, research agenda and treatment implications

OBJECTIVE

There are significant temporal and financial barriers for individuals with personality disorders (PD) receiving evidence-based psychological treatments. Emerging research indicates Group Schema Therapy (GST) may be an accessible, efficient, and cost-effective PD intervention, however, there has been no synthesis of the available evidence to date. This review therefore aimed to investigate the efficacy of GST for PDs by systematically synthesizing available literature.

METHOD

Five electronic databases were screened with resulting studies subjected to a specific eligibility criteria, which yielded fourteen relevant studies. Characteristics were extracted and methodological quality rigorously assessed.

RESULTS

Strong support was evidenced for GST's ability to reduce Cluster B and C symptomology, particularly for Borderline and Avoidant PD. GST appeared to improve global symptom severity, quality of life and functional capacity, as well as treatment targets such as schemas and modes.

CONCLUSION

Although not without limitations and a moderate risk of bias, the current body of evidence supports GST as a potential solution to current service deficits in economical and evidence-based care for individuals with PD. Implications for treatment and future research are discussed.

Positive Schemas: Replication, Associations With Negative Schemas, and the Dark Triad

The purpose of the current study was to replicate the factor structure of the 14 positive schemas identified in the earlier study by Louis et al. (2018). Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and Multi-group CFA, the 14 positive schemas were found to be robust across four new non-clinical English-speaking community samples - USA (n = 396), South Africa (n = 390), Nigeria (n = 364), and India (n = 306). Further, results from CFA, and chi square tests showed that positive and negative schemas were independent but related constructs, and that they do not reflect bipolarity. Using hierarchical regression and Pearson's correlations the negative schemas of Entitlement, Approval Seeking and Mistrust, and the positive schema of Empathic Consideration were found to be associated positively and negatively respectively with Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy of the Dark Triad scale in all four worldwide samples. Implications of this finding in Schema Therapy treatment were discussed.

A Comprehensive Literature Review of Borderline Personality Disorder: Unraveling Complexity From Diagnosis to Treatment

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a severe mental illness marked by unpredictable feelings, behaviors, and relationships. Symptoms like emotional instability, impulsivity, and poor social connections are the basis for diagnostic criteria. A noteworthy discovery highlights the clinical overlap between BPD and several psychotic disorders by arguing that BPD and psychotic symptoms raise the risk of psychopathology. According to neuroimaging evidence, structural and functional brain changes, notably in regions controlling affective regulation and impulse control, are seen in BPD patients. Adolf Stern, a psychoanalyst, used the word "borderline" in 1938 to describe patients who exhibited increased symptoms during therapy and displayed masochistic tendencies. Modern BPD research has highlighted the complexity of symptoms like boredom, a former diagnostic criterion associated with feelings of emptiness. Though there are still unanswered problems regarding its precise, practical components, the treatment technique known as Schema therapy (ST) has shown promise in treating BPD. It's interesting to note that BPD displays complex relationships with other illnesses; for instance, some neurochemical pathways coincide with those in bulimia nervosa, pointing to a deeper level of interconnection. Concerning diagnosis, BPD's defining symptoms include, among others, the fear of abandonment, identity disruption, and recurrent suicidal conduct. The range of treatment options includes pharmacological interventions and psychotherapies like dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). Even though antidepressants like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are routinely prescribed, research on their efficacy is ongoing, underlining the significance of thorough treatment planning. In conclusion, BPD continues to be a complex condition that calls for early detection, especially considering that it usually manifests in adolescence. While many patients report symptom relief, lingering problems still exist, emphasizing the value of comprehensive and personalized treatment strategies.

Genetic Influences on Outcomes of Psychotherapy in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Narrative Review of Implications for Personalized Treatment

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) manifests as instability in mood, relationships, self-image, and behavior, representing a challenging mental health issue. This review scrutinizes genetic factors influencing BPD and the corresponding treatment outcomes. The primary objective of this narrative review is to illuminate the association between genetic factors and BPD treatment outcomes, discussing the potential of genetic testing for personalized therapy. The review is derived from observational and experimental studies on BPD, genetic factors, and psychotherapy from 2000 to 2023, sourced primarily through PubMed. Reviews and meta-analyses were excluded. Our review suggests that genetic factors account for 40-60% of BPD variation, with significant roles played by epigenetic alterations like DNA methylation and microRNAs, particularly in the context of childhood trauma. Gene-environment interactions are also vital for BPD's development. Treatments such as dialectical behavior therapy, mentalization-based therapy, and schema therapy have shown efficacy, with success variability possibly linked to genetic factors. However, existing research is constrained by recall bias, diverse methodologies, and limited sample sizes. Future research necessitates long-term follow-up, diverse populations, and controlled variables to enhance our comprehension of BPD treatment outcomes' genetic foundations. The review underlines the promise of personalized medicine in BPD treatment, driven by genetic insights.

Chairwork in schema therapy for patients with borderline personality disorder-A qualitative study of patients' perceptions

Objective

Chairwork is one of the core experiential techniques of Schema Therapy (ST) which is used in the treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD). However, little is known about how people with BPD experience chairwork. The aim of this study was to explore the experiences of patients with BPD with chairwork in ST.

Method

Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 29 participants with a primary diagnosis of BPD who experienced chairwork as part of their ST treatment. The interview data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis.

Findings

Many participants reported initial skepticism, and difficulties with engaging in chairwork. Specific therapist behaviors as well as some external (e.g., restricted facilities, noise) and internal factors (especially feeling ashamed or ridiculous) were named as hindering factors. Participants described several therapist behaviors facilitating chairwork such as providing safety, clear guidance through the process as well as flexible application of the technique according to their needs, and sufficient time for debriefing. Participants experienced emotional pain and exhaustion as short-term effects of the technique. All participants reported positive long-term effects including an improved understanding of their mode model as well as positive mode changes (e.g., less Punitive Parent and more Healthy Adult Mode), greater self-acceptance, improvements in coping with emotions and needs as well as improvements in interpersonal relationships.

Conclusions

Chairwork is experienced as an emotionally demanding but valuable technique. Based on the participants' statements, the delivery of chairwork can be optimized which can help to improve treatment outcome.

Demystifying borderline personality disorder in primary care

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a common mental health diagnosis observed in the primary care population and is associated with a variety of psychological and physical symptoms. BPD is a challenging disorder to recognize due to the limitations of accurate diagnosis and identification in primary care settings. It is also difficult to treat due to its complexity (e.g., interpersonal difficulties and patterns of unsafe behaviors, perceived stigma) and healthcare professionals often feel overwhelmed when treating this population. The aim of this article is to describe the impact of BPD in primary care, review current state of knowledge, and provide practical, evidence-based treatment approaches for these patients within this setting. Due to the lack of evidence-based pharmacological treatments, emphasis is placed on describing the framework for treatment, identifying psychotherapeutic opportunities, and managing responses to difficult clinical scenarios. Furthermore, we discuss BPD treatment as it relates to populations of special interest, including individuals facing societal discrimination and adolescents. Through this review, we aim to highlight gaps in current knowledge around managing BPD in primary care and provide direction for future study.

Early maladaptive schemas and COVID-19 anxiety: The mediational role of mistrustfulness and vulnerability to harm and illness

BACKGROUND

Early maladaptive schemas (EMS), as lifelong psychological structures, tend to be associated with psychopathological symptomatology. Previous research has suggested that schemas act as psychological vulnerabilities to stressful life situations, such as the present worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. In this context, anxiety and psychological distress have been documented as two of the main psychological symptoms associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the associations between specific EMS and COVID-19 anxiety remain unexplored. Therefore, this study aims to explore the relationships between EMS, COVID-19 anxiety as well as other mental health variables such as psychological well-being, distress and life satisfaction.

METHODS

In a cross-sectional design, 249 individuals (M = 34.2, SD = 12.0) completed several self-report measures.

RESULTS

EMS from different schematic domains were positively associated with COVID-19 anxiety and psychological distress and negatively associated with psychological well-being and life satisfaction. An EMS hierarchical regression model predicted COVID-19 anxiety. Mistrustfulness and vulnerability to harm and illness mediated the relationships between COVID-19 anxiety, psychological distress and life satisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS

According to these results, mistrustfulness and vulnerability to harm and illness can act as underlying variables for the decrease in mental health associated with the COVID-19 pandemic.

The Use of Computer-Driven Technologies in the Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder: A Systematic Review

The objective of this study was to perform a systematic review of the effectiveness of computer-driven technologies for treatment of patients suffering from BPD. A systematic literature review was conducted using the Pubmed, EMBASE, PsycNET (PsycINFO), CINAHL and Google Scholar electronic databases for the period from their inception dates until 2022. Thirty studies were selected for abstract screening. Seven studies were excluded for not meeting inclusion criteria. The remaining 23 studies were fully assessed, and 12 were excluded. Therefore, 11 studies were included in the analysis of the effectiveness of computer-driven technologies, which encompassed mobile applications, telehealth interventions, internet-based interventions, virtual reality MBT and dialogue-based integrated interventions. Computer-driven interventions are showing signs of effectiveness in the treatment of BPD symptoms. The limited number of articles found on the subject demonstrates a need for further exploration of this subject.

Effectiveness of Predominantly Group Schema Therapy and Combined Individual and Group Schema Therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial

IMPORTANCE

Schema therapy (ST), delivered either in an individual or group format, has been compared with other active treatments for borderline personality disorder (BPD). To our knowledge, the 2 formats have not been compared with treatment as usual (TAU) or with each other. Such comparisons help determine best treatment practices.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether ST is more effectively delivered in a predominantly group or combined individual and group format and whether ST is more effective than optimal TAU for BPD.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

In this multicenter, 3-arm randomized clinical trial conducted at 15 sites in 5 countries (Australia, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, and the UK), outpatients aged 18 to 65 years who had BPD were recruited between June 29, 2010, and May 18, 2016, to receive either predominantly group ST (PGST), combined individual and group ST (IGST), or optimal TAU. Data were analyzed from June 4, 2019, to December 29, 2021.

INTERVENTIONS

At each site, cohorts of 16 to 18 participants were randomized 1:1 to PGST vs TAU or IGST vs TAU. Both ST formats were delivered over 2 years, with 2 sessions per week in year 1 and the frequency gradually decreasing during year 2. Assessments were collected by blinded assessors.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome was the change in BPD severity over time, assessed with the Borderline Personality Disorder Severity Index (BPDSI) total score. Treatment retention was analyzed as a secondary outcome using generalized linear mixed model survival analysis.

RESULTS

Of 495 participants (mean [SD] age, 33.6 [9.4] years; 426 [86.2%] female), 246 (49.7%) received TAU, 125 (25.2%) received PGST, and 124 (25.0%) received IGST (1 of whom later withdrew consent). PGST and IGST combined were superior to TAU with regard to reduced BPD severity (Cohen d, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.29-1.18; P < .001). For this outcome, IGST was superior to TAU (Cohen d, 1.14; 95% CI, 0.57-1.71; P < .001) and PGST (Cohen d, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.09-1.59; P = .03), whereas PGST did not differ significantly from TAU (Cohen d, 0.30; 95% CI, -0.29 to 0.89; P = .32). Treatment retention was greater in the IGST arm than in the PGST (1 year: 0.82 vs 0.72; 2 years: 0.74 vs. 0.62) and TAU (1 year: 0.82 vs 0.73; 2 years: 0.74 vs 0.64) arms, and there was no significant difference between the TAU and PGST arms (1 year: 0.73 vs 0.72; 2 years: 0.64 vs 0.62).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this randomized clinical trial, IGST was more effective and had greater treatment retention compared with TAU and PGST. These findings suggest that IGST is the preferred ST format, with high retention and continuation of improvement in BPD severity after the completion of treatment.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

trialregister.nl Identifier: NTR2392.

Towards a Reformulated Theory Underlying Schema Therapy: Position Paper of an International Workgroup

Background

A central construct in Schema Therapy (ST) is that of a schema mode, describing the current emotional-cognitive-behavioral state. Initially, 10 modes were described. Over time, with the world-wide increasing and broader application of ST to various disorders, additional schema modes were identified, mainly based on clinical impressions. Thus, the need for a new, theoretically based, cross-cultural taxonomy of modes emerged.

Methods

An international workgroup started from scratch to identify an extensive taxonomy of modes, based on (a) extending the theory underlying ST with new insights on needs, and (b) recent research on ST theory supporting that modes represent combinations of activated schemas and coping.

Results

We propose to add two emotional needs to the original five core needs that theoretically underpin the development of early maladaptive schemas (EMSs), i.e., the need for Self-Coherence, and the need for Fairness, leading to three new EMSs, i.e. Lack of a Coherent Identity, Lack of a Meaningful World, and Unfairness. When rethinking the purpose behind the different ways of coping with EMS-activation, we came up with new labels for two of those: Resignation instead of Surrender, and Inversion instead of Overcompensation. By systematically combining EMSs and ways of coping we derived a set of schema modes that can be empirically tested.

Conclusions

With this project, we hope to contribute to the further development of ST and its application across the world.

The Good Enough Parenting early intervention schema therapy based program: Participant experience

Background and objectives

Schema therapy (ST) has become a mainstream therapy for the treatment of psychopathology and has been validated through a series of large scale, international randomized control trials. Among other things, schema therapy emphasizes the meeting of core emotional needs in children by primary caregivers as these unmet needs continue to adversely affect their lives into adulthood. An early intervention parenting program has been developed to help parents meet these core emotional needs in order to prevent the development of psychopathology in the first place. The program, Good Enough Parenting, is equally focused on reducing problems and strengthening parenting practices, regardless of where the child is on the “disordered to well-being continuum”. This study aims to explore “patient experience” by users of this program. Best clinical research guidelines advocate that participants should be used as collaborators rather than pure recipients; this process should predate large scale trials.

Design

An exploratory qualitative study with 55 parent-participants of Good Enough Parenting was conducted.

Methods

One-to-one interviews were conducted with participants, using critical incident technique and guided by semi-structured interview schedule, to explore their experiences with the program. Transcripts were then analyzed using thematic analysis.

Results

Coding showed a high degree of inter-rater reliability (kappa value of 0.78). The themes that emerged were Cultivating Awareness of Parents’ Own Schemas, Cultivating Intentionality, Working through Developmental Issues, Responses to Challenges at Home, Performing Multiple Roles, and the Learning Process. Participants overwhelmingly reported satisfaction within these key themes.

Conclusions

The results support the development of the program and the choice of “participant reported outcome measures” for use in subsequent randomized controlled trials.

The Relationships between Personality Disorders and Early Maladaptive Schemas and the Moderating Role of Gender

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study were to examine the relationship between personality disorders (PDs) and early maladaptive schemas, to determine the early maladaptive schemas that predict PDs, and to investigate the moderating role of gender in the relationship between PDs and early maladaptive schemas.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 654 participants, 368 (56.4%) women and 286 (43.6%) men, aged 18-75 years, determined by the convenience sampling method. Data were collected using Coolidge Axis II Inventory Plus Turkish Short Form and Young Schema Questionnaire-Short Form 3.

RESULTS

From regression analysis, it was determined that each PD had a specific early maladaptive schema profile. According to the analysis, the schema that predicts the most for paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid, antisocial, borderline, obsessive-compulsive, and avoidant PDs is social isolation/mistrust; for histrionic and narcissistic PDs, the schema is approval seeking, and for dependent PD, it is failure. The analysis related to the moderating role of gender indicated that for women, the emotional deprivation schema is a risk factor for paranoid PD, and the schemas of self-sacrifice, punitiveness, and unrelenting standards are the risk factors for avoidant PD.

CONCLUSION

This study discovered that some early maladaptive schemas were predictors of PDs and that gender had a moderating role in the relationship between these variables. It is thought that paying attention to the moderating role of gender and considering the specific schema profiles of each PD will be beneficial for intervention programs for early maladaptive schemas and understanding the etiology of PDs.

Insomnia in Patients with Borderline Personality Disorder

OBJECTIVE

Both sleep disorders and BPD are prevalent in the population, and one is often a comorbidity of the other. This narrative review aims to assess contemporary literature and scientific databases to provide the current state of knowledge about sleep disorders in patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) and clinical suggestions for managing sleep disorders in BPD patients and future research direction.

METHODS

Articles were acquired via PubMed and Web of Science, and papers published between January 1980 and October 2020 were extracted. Authors made a series of literature searches using the keywords: Sleep problems, Insomnia, Nightmares, Obstructive sleep apnea, Borderline personality disorder. The inclusion criteria were: published in peer-reviewed journals; studies in humans; or reviews on the related topic; English language. The exclusion criteria were: abstracts from conferences; commentaries; subjects younger than 18 years. After an inspection of the full texts, 42 papers from 101 were selected. Secondary documents from the reference lists of the primary designated papers were searched, assessed for suitability, and included. In total, 71 papers were included in the review process.

RESULTS

Sleep disturbance is common among patients with BPD. Nevertheless, the number of investigations is limited, and the prevalence differs between 5-45%. Studies assessing objective changes in sleep architecture in BPD show inconsistent results. Some of them identify REM sleep changes and a decrease in slow-wave sleep, while other studies found no objective sleep architecture changes. There is also a higher prevalence of nightmares in patients with BPD. Untreated insomnia can worsen BPD symptoms via interference with emotional regulation. BPD itself seems to influence the subjective quality of sleep significantly. Proper diagnosis and treatment of sleep disorders in patients with BPD could lead to better results in therapy. Psychotherapeutic approaches can improve both sleep disorders and BPD symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Recognising and managing sleep disorders in patients with BPD may help alleviate the disorder's symptoms. Treatment of people with BPD may be more effective if the treatment plan explicitly addresses sleep problems. Further research is needed to reach reliable conclusions.

Experiences of Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder With Imagery Rescripting in the Context of Schema Therapy-A Qualitative Study

Imagery Rescripting (IR) is a therapeutic technique that is used in a wide spectrum of therapeutic methods for various mental disorders. As an important component of Schema Therapy (ST), IR is frequently used in the treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD). However, little is known about how IR is experienced by individuals with BPD. The aim of this study was to explore BPD patients' experiences with receiving IR. Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 21 individuals (86% females) with a primary diagnosis of BPD who received IR within their ST treatment. Interview data were analyzed following the procedures of qualitative content analysis. Participants reported various effects of IR including initial high emotionality and exhaustion. Long-term effects included a better understanding of schemas and an improvement regarding emotion regulation and interpersonal relationships. Participants reported factors hindering the successful implementation of IR, such as external noise, stress, and a fast pace during IR. Facilitating factors included adequate time for debriefing, a transparent structure, and preparation of IR as well as the therapist providing safety. Implications of the findings for optimizing IR in clinical practice are discussed.