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Fischer AL, Tichy A, Kokot J, Hoerschinger VJ, Wild RF, Riccabona JR, Loeffler JR, Waibl F, Quoika PK, Gschwandtner P, Forli S, Ward AB, Liedl KR, Zacharias M, Fernández-Quintero ML. The Role of Force Fields and Water Models in Protein Folding and Unfolding Dynamics. J Chem Theory Comput 2024; 20:2321-2333. [PMID: 38373307 PMCID: PMC10938642 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.3c01106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Protein folding is a fascinating, not fully understood phenomenon in biology. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are an invaluable tool to study conformational changes in atomistic detail, including folding and unfolding processes of proteins. However, the accuracy of the conformational ensembles derived from MD simulations inevitably relies on the quality of the underlying force field in combination with the respective water model. Here, we investigate protein folding, unfolding, and misfolding of fast-folding proteins by examining different force fields with their recommended water models, i.e., ff14SB with the TIP3P model and ff19SB with the OPC model. To this end, we generated long conventional MD simulations highlighting the perks and pitfalls of these setups. Using Markov state models, we defined kinetically independent conformational substates and emphasized their distinct characteristics, as well as their corresponding state probabilities. Surprisingly, we found substantial differences in thermodynamics and kinetics of protein folding, depending on the combination of the protein force field and water model, originating primarily from the different water models. These results emphasize the importance of carefully choosing the force field and the respective water model as they determine the accuracy of the observed dynamics of folding events. Thus, the findings support the hypothesis that the water model is at least equally important as the force field and hence needs to be considered in future studies investigating protein dynamics and folding in all areas of biophysics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Lena
M. Fischer
- Institute
for General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Center for Molecular
Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University
of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Anna Tichy
- Institute
for General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Center for Molecular
Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University
of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Janik Kokot
- Institute
for General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Center for Molecular
Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University
of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Valentin J. Hoerschinger
- Institute
for General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Center for Molecular
Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University
of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Robert F. Wild
- Institute
for General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Center for Molecular
Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University
of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Jakob R. Riccabona
- Institute
for General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Center for Molecular
Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University
of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Johannes R. Loeffler
- Institute
for General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Center for Molecular
Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University
of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Franz Waibl
- Department
of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH
Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 2, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Patrick K. Quoika
- Center
for Protein Assemblies (CPA), Physics Department, Chair of Theoretical
Biophysics, Technical University of Munich, D-80333 Munich, Germany
| | | | - Stefano Forli
- Department
of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, Scripps Research Institute, La
Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Andrew B. Ward
- Department
of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, Scripps Research Institute, La
Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Klaus R. Liedl
- Institute
for General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Center for Molecular
Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University
of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Martin Zacharias
- Center
for Protein Assemblies (CPA), Physics Department, Chair of Theoretical
Biophysics, Technical University of Munich, D-80333 Munich, Germany
| | - Monica L. Fernández-Quintero
- Institute
for General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Center for Molecular
Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University
of Innsbruck, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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Ren C, Cui H, Bao X, Huang L, He S, Fong HKW, Zhao M. Proteopathy Linked to Exon-Skipping Isoform of RGR-Opsin Contributes to the Pathogenesis of Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2023; 64:41. [PMID: 37883094 PMCID: PMC10615142 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.64.13.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Proteopathy is believed to contribute to age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Much research indicates that AMD begins in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), which is associated with formation of extracellular drusen, a clinical hallmark of AMD. Human RPE produces a drusen-associated abnormal protein, the exon Ⅵ-skipping splice isoform of retinal G protein-coupled receptor (RGR-d). In this study, we investigate the detrimental effects of RGR-d on cultured cells and mouse retina. Methods ARPE-19 cells were stably infected by lentivirus overexpressing RGR or RGR-d and were treated with MG132, sometimes combined with or without endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress inducer, tunicamycin. RGR and RGR-d protein expression, degeneration pathway, and potential cytotoxicity were explored. Homozygous RGR-d mice aged 8 or 14 months were fed with a high-fat diet for 3 months and then subjected to ocular examination and histopathology experiments. Results We confirm that RGR-d is proteotoxic under various conditions. In ARPE-19 cells, RGR-d is misfolded and almost completely degraded via the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Unlike normal RGR, RGR-d increases ER stress, triggers the unfolded protein response, and exerts potent cytotoxicity. Aged RGR-d mice manifest disrupted RPE cell integrity, apoptotic photoreceptors, choroidal deposition of complement C3, and CD86+CD32+ proinflammatory cell infiltration into retina and RPE-choroid. Furthermore, the AMD-like phenotype of RGR-d mice can be aggravated by a high-fat diet. Conclusions Our study confirmed the pathogenicity of the RGR splice isoform and corroborated a significant role of proteopathy in AMD. These findings may contribute to greater comprehension of the multifactorial causes of AMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi Ren
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye Disease and Optometry Institute, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Therapy of Retinal and Choroid Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Haoran Cui
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye Disease and Optometry Institute, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Therapy of Retinal and Choroid Diseases, Beijing, China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xuan Bao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye Disease and Optometry Institute, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Therapy of Retinal and Choroid Diseases, Beijing, China
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Lvzhen Huang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye Disease and Optometry Institute, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Therapy of Retinal and Choroid Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Shikun He
- Department of Ophthalmology, USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine of University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Henry K. W. Fong
- Department of Ophthalmology, USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine of University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States
| | - Mingwei Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye Disease and Optometry Institute, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Therapy of Retinal and Choroid Diseases, Beijing, China
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Enzyme Inhibition-Based Assay to Estimate the Contribution of Formulants to the Effect of Commercial Pesticide Formulations. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032268. [PMID: 36768591 PMCID: PMC9916951 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Pesticides can affect the health of individual organisms and the function of the entire ecosystem. Therefore, thorough assessment of the risks associated with the use of pesticides is a high-priority task. An enzyme inhibition-based assay is used in this study as a convenient and quick tool to study the effects of pesticides at the molecular level. The contribution of formulants to toxicological properties of the pesticide formulations has been studied by analyzing effects of 7 active ingredients of pesticides (AIas) and 10 commercial formulations based on them (AIfs) on the function of a wide range of enzyme assay systems differing in complexity (single-, coupled, and three-enzyme assay systems). Results have been compared with the effects of AIas and AIfs on bioluminescence of the luminous bacterium Photobacterium phosphoreum. Mostly, AIfs produce a considerably stronger inhibitory effect on the activity of enzyme assay systems and bioluminescence of the luminous bacterium than AIas, which confirms the contribution of formulants to toxicological properties of the pesticide formulation. Results of the current study demonstrate that "inert" ingredients are not ecotoxicologically safe and can considerably augment the inhibitory effect of pesticide formulations; therefore, their use should be controlled more strictly. Circular dichroism and fluorescence spectra of the enzymes used for assays do not show any changes in the protein structure in the presence of commercial pesticide formulations during the assay procedure. This finding suggests that pesticides produce the inhibitory effect on enzymes through other mechanisms.
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Melnik BS, Katina NS, Ryabova NA, Marchenkov VV, Melnik TN, Karuzina NE, Nemtseva EV. Relationship between Changes in the Protein Folding Pathway and the Process of Amyloid Formation: The Case of Bovine Carbonic Anhydrase II. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232314645. [PMID: 36498970 PMCID: PMC9735599 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232314645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Many proteins form amyloid fibrils only under conditions when the probability of transition from a native (structured, densely packed) to an intermediate (labile, destabilized) state is increased. It implies the assumption that some structural intermediates are more convenient for amyloid formation than the others. Hence, if a mutation affects the protein folding pathway, one should expect that this mutation could affect the rate of amyloid formation as well. In the current work, we have compared the effects of amino acid substitutions of bovine carbonic anhydrase II on its unfolding pathway and on its ability to form amyloids at acidic pH and an elevated temperature. Wild-type protein and four mutant forms (L78A, L139A, I208A, and M239A) were studied. We analyzed the change of the protein unfolding pathway by the time-resolved fluorescence technique and the process of amyloid formation by thioflavin T fluorescence assay and electron microscopy. It was revealed that I208A substitution accelerates amyloid formation and affects the structure of the late (molten globule-like)-intermediate state of carbonic anhydrase, whereas the other mutations slow down the growth of amyloids and have either no effect on the unfolding pathway (L78A, L139A) or alter the conformational states arising at the early unfolding stage (M239A).
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Affiliation(s)
- Bogdan S. Melnik
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia
- Pushchino Branch, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-(4967)-318271; Fax: +7-(4967)-318435
| | - Natalya S. Katina
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia
| | - Natalya A. Ryabova
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia
| | - Victor V. Marchenkov
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia
| | - Tatiana N. Melnik
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia
| | - Natalya E. Karuzina
- Biophysics Department, Siberian Federal University, 660041 Krasnoyarsk, Russia
| | - Elena V. Nemtseva
- Biophysics Department, Siberian Federal University, 660041 Krasnoyarsk, Russia
- Institute of Biophysics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 660036 Krasnoyarsk, Russia
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Qu Y, Davey K, Sun Y, Middelberg A, Bi J. Engineered Design of the E-Helix Structure on Ferritin Nanoparticles. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2022; 5:3167-3179. [PMID: 35770389 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.2c00154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Insertion of an immunogenic epitope at the C-terminus of ferritin has shown the potential to produce a stable and efficacious vaccine. There is however limited understanding of how C-terminus insertion affects ferritin protein stability. The E-helix at the C-terminus has attracted interest because there are contradictory reports as to whether it has a role in protein stabilization. Here, we report, for the first time, combining molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) with experiment to engineer the design of the E-helix at the C-terminus of engineered human ferritin heavy chain (F1) inserted with Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1, E1) and flexible linker (L3) residues (to afford F1L3E1). Hot spots on the E-helix of the C-terminus were predicted by MDS at aa 167 (Glu) and aa 171 (Asp). Five (5) variants of F1L3E1 were constructed by considering hot spots and alteration of electrostatic or hydrophobic interfaces, namely, (1) C1, hot spots substituted with noncharged residue Gln; (2) C2, hot spots substituted with positively charged residue Arg; (3) C3, hydrophobic residues substituted with the most hydrophobic residues Val and Ile; (4) C4, hydrophobic residues substituted with the most hydrophilic residues Gln and Asn; and (5) C5, a heptad repeat structure in the E-helix disrupted by substituting "a" and "d" heptad residues with noncharged polar residue Gln. It was found that the E-helix is essential to maintain integrated protein stability and that changing the hydrophobic interface (C3 and C4) had more significant effects on protein folding and stability than changing the electrostatic interface (C1 and C2). It was confirmed by both MDS and experiment that variants C1, C2, and C5 were able to fold to form stable conformational structures with protein surface hydrophobicity similar to that of F1L3E1. However, they are less thermally stable than F1L3E1. Significant changes in hydrophobicity drove significant protein aggregation for variants C3 and C4. It is concluded that the molecular design of the C-terminus in engineered ferritin, especially the E-helix, is important to ensure the epitope-based chimeric vaccine is safe (aggregate free) and efficacious.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiran Qu
- School of Chemical Engineering and Advanced Materials, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Kenneth Davey
- School of Chemical Engineering and Advanced Materials, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Yan Sun
- Department of Biochemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Anton Middelberg
- Division of Research and Innovation, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Jingxiu Bi
- School of Chemical Engineering and Advanced Materials, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
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Mou K, Mukhtar F, Khan MT, Darwish DB, Peng S, Muhammad S, Al-Sehemi AG, Wei DQ. Emerging Mutations in Nsp1 of SARS-CoV-2 and Their Effect on the Structural Stability. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10101285. [PMID: 34684233 PMCID: PMC8539063 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10101285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 09/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The genome of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) encodes 16 non-structural (Nsp) and 4 structural proteins. Among the Nsps, Nsp1 inhibits host gene expression and also evades the immune system. This protein has been proposed as a target for vaccine development and also for drug design. Owing to its important role, the current study aimed to identify mutations in Nsp1 and their effect on protein stability and flexibility. This is the first comprehensive study in which 295,000 complete genomes have been screened for mutations after alignment with the Wuhan-Hu-1 reference genome (Accession NC_045512), using the CoVsurver app. The sequences harbored 933 mutations in the entire coding region of Nsp1. The most frequently occurring mutation in the 180-amino-acid Nsp1 protein was R24C (n = 1122), followed by D75E (n = 890), D48G (n = 881), H110Y (n = 860), and D144A (n = 648). Among the 933 non-synonymous mutations, 529 exhibited a destabilizing effect. Similarly, a gain in flexibility was observed in 542 mutations. The majority of the most frequent mutations were detected in the loop regions. These findings imply that Nsp1 mutations might be useful to exploit SARS-CoV-2's pathogenicity. Genomic sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 on a regular basis will further assist in analyzing variations among the drug targets and to test the diagnostic accuracy. This wide range of mutations and their effect on Nsp1's stability may have some consequences for the host's innate immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection and also for the vaccines' efficacy. Based on this mutational information, geographically strain-specific drugs, vaccines, and antibody combinations could be a useful strategy against SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kejie Mou
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bishan Hospital of Chongqing, Chongqing 402760, China;
| | - Farwa Mukhtar
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (IMBB), The University of Lahore, KM Defence Road, Lahore 58810, Pakistan;
| | - Muhammad Tahir Khan
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (IMBB), The University of Lahore, KM Defence Road, Lahore 58810, Pakistan;
- Correspondence: (M.T.K.); (D.-Q.W.)
| | - Doaa B. Darwish
- Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt;
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shaoliang Peng
- Peng Cheng Laboratory, Vanke Cloud City Phase I Building 8, Xili Street, Nashan District, Shenzhen 518055, China;
| | - Shabbir Muhammad
- Department of Physics, College of Science, King Khalid University, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Abdullah G. Al-Sehemi
- Research Center for Advanced Materials Science (RCAMS), King Khalid University, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia;
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Khalid University, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia
| | - Dong-Qing Wei
- Peng Cheng Laboratory, Vanke Cloud City Phase I Building 8, Xili Street, Nashan District, Shenzhen 518055, China;
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Shanghai-Islamabad-Belgrade Joint Innovation Center on Antibacterial Resistances, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
- Correspondence: (M.T.K.); (D.-Q.W.)
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Bacterial Luciferases from Vibrio harveyi and Photobacterium leiognathi Demonstrate Different Conformational Stability as Detected by Time-Resolved Fluorescence Spectroscopy. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910449. [PMID: 34638798 PMCID: PMC8508739 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Detecting the folding/unfolding pathways of biological macromolecules is one of the urgent problems of molecular biophysics. The unfolding of bacterial luciferase from Vibrio harveyi is well-studied, unlike that of Photobacterium leiognathi, despite the fact that both of them are actively used as a reporter system. The aim of this study was to compare the conformational transitions of these luciferases from two different protein subfamilies during equilibrium unfolding with urea. Intrinsic steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence spectra and circular dichroism spectra were used to determine the stages of the protein unfolding. Molecular dynamics methods were applied to find the differences in the surroundings of tryptophans in both luciferases. We found that the unfolding pathway is the same for the studied luciferases. However, the results obtained indicate more stable tertiary and secondary structures of P. leiognathi luciferase as compared to enzyme from V. harveyi during the last stage of denaturation, including the unfolding of individual subunits. The distinctions in fluorescence of the two proteins are associated with differences in the structure of the C-terminal domain of α-subunits, which causes different quenching of tryptophan emissions. The time-resolved fluorescence technique proved to be a more effective method for studying protein unfolding than steady-state methods.
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Effect of disease-linked mutations on the structure, function, stability and aggregation of human carbonic anhydrase II. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 143:472-482. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Abstract
A Monte Carlo simulation based sequence design method is proposed to explore the effect of correlated pair mutations in proteins. In the designed sequences, the most correlated residue pairs are identified and mutated with all possible amino acid pairs except those already present. The cumulative correlated pair mutations generated an array of mutated sequences. Results show a significant increase in the probability of misfolding for correlated pair mutations as compared to that of the random pair mutations. The pair mutations of correlated residues that are in contact record a higher probability of misfolding as compared to the correlated residues that are not in contact. The probability of misfolding increases on pair mutation of nonlocally correlated residue pairs as compared to that of the locally correlated residue pairs. The choice of a compact or expanded conformation does not depend on the type of correlated pair mutations. Pair mutation of the most correlated residue pairs at the surface with hydrophobic amino acids results in higher misfolding probability as compared to that in the core. An exactly opposite behavior is observed on pair mutation with hydrophilic and charged amino acid pairs. The neutral amino acid pairs do not differentiate between core and surface sites. This study may be used for targeted mutation experiments to predict complex mutation patterns, reengineer the existing proteins, and design new proteins with reduced misfolding propensity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adesh Kumar
- Department of Chemistry , University of Delhi , Delhi 110007 , India
| | - Parbati Biswas
- Department of Chemistry , University of Delhi , Delhi 110007 , India
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