Male mice adjust courtship behavior in response to female multimodal signals

Acoustic features of and behavioral responses to emotionally intense mouse vocalizations

Social vocalizations contain cues that reflect the motivational state of a vocalizing animal. Once perceived, these cues may in turn affect the internal state and behavioral responses of listening animals. Using the CBA/CAJ mouse model of acoustic communication, this study examined acoustic cues that signal intensity in male-female interactions, then compared behavioral responses to intense mating vocal sequences with those from another intense behavioral context, restraint. Experiment I in this study examined behaviors and vocalizations associated with male-female social interactions. Based on several behaviors, we distinguished more general, courtship-type interactions from mating interactions involving mounting or attempted mounting behaviors. We then compared vocalizations between courtship and mating. The increase in behavioral intensity from courtship to mating was associated with altered syllable composition, more harmonic structure, lower minimum frequency, longer duration, reduced inter-syllable interval, and increased sound intensity. We then used these features to construct highly salient playback stimuli associated with mating. In Experiment II, we compared behavioral responses to playback of these mating sequences with responses to playback of aversive vocal sequences produced by restrained mice, described in previous studies. Subjects were females in estrus and males. We observed a range of behavioral responses. Some (e.g., Attending and Stretch-Attend) showed similar responses across playback type and sex, while others were context dependent (e.g., Flinching, Locomotion). Still other behaviors showed either an effect of sex (e.g., Self-Grooming, Still-and-Alert) or an interaction between playback type and sex (Escape). These results demonstrate both state-dependent features of mouse vocalizations and their effectiveness in evoking a range of behavioral responses, independent of contextual cues provided by other sensory stimuli or behavioral interactions.

Fake news? The impact of information mismatch on mating behaviour

Multiple cues are often used for mate choice in complex environments, potentially entailing mismatches in the information conveyed by different sources. We address the consequences of this information mismatch for receivers using the spider mite Tetranychus urticae, in which virgin females are highly valuable mates compared to mated females, given first male sperm precedence. Accordingly, males are known to prefer virgins and distinguish them using cues from the females themselves and that they leave on the substrate. Whereas cues from females are highly reliable, those left on the substrate may not reflect the real female mating status if females move and/or mate. Here, we tested the consequences of such mismatch by exposing males to mated or virgin females on patches previously impregnated with cues deposited by females of either mating status. Male mating attempts were solely affected by substrate cues while female acceptance and the number of mating events were independently affected by both cues. Copulation duration, in contrast, depended mainly on the mating status of the female, with the number of copulations and the total time spent mating being intermediate in environments with mismatched information. We also show that males incur mating costs, reflected in reduced survival in environments with virgin cues. These results suggest that substrate cues left by females are instrumental for males to find their mates. However, in environments with mismatched information, males may pay survival costs without the associated benefit of mating with virgins, or they may lose opportunities to mate with virgins by responding to substrate cues from mated females. The benefit of using multiple cues will then hinge upon the frequency of information mismatch, which itself should vary with the dynamics of populations.

Improved Memory and Lower Stress Levels in Male Mice Co-Housed with Ovariectomized Female Mice

Aggressiveness, expressed by fighting, is a frequent problem in group-housed laboratory male mice and results in increased stress, injury, and death. One way to prevent fighting is by pairing the male mice with ovariectomized female mice to provide a compatible companion. However, the effect of these housing conditions remains unclear. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate behavior and stress levels in two different housing conditions, pair-housed with an ovariectomized female and group-housed with other males. Behavioral tests were performed to assess stress and anxiety-like behavior. Moreover, the corticosterone levels in plasma were measured by ELISA. Based on home cage behavior assessment, pair-housed male mice showed no signs of fighting, not even after isolation and regrouping. Our results also showed that the pair-housed males had a better memory and demonstrated less anxiety-like behavior. Subsequently, the pair-housed male mice had a larger reduction in corticosterone levels compared to group-housed males. Overall, pair-housing reduced anxiety-like behavior and stress levels in male mice compared to standard group-housing.

The Mouse Inferior Colliculus Responds Preferentially to Non-Ultrasonic Vocalizations

The inferior colliculus (IC), the midbrain auditory integration center, analyzes information about social vocalizations and provides substrates for higher level processing of vocal signals. We used multichannel recordings to characterize and localize responses to social vocalizations and synthetic stimuli within the IC of female and male mice, both urethane anesthetized and unanesthetized. We compared responses to ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) with other vocalizations in the mouse repertoire and related vocal responses to frequency tuning, IC subdivisions, and sex. Responses to lower frequency, broadband social vocalizations were widespread in IC, well represented throughout the tonotopic axis, across subdivisions, and in both sexes. Responses to USVs were much more limited. Although we observed some differences in tonal and vocal responses by sex and subdivision, representations of vocal responses by sex and subdivision were largely the same. For most units, responses to vocal signals occurred only when frequency response areas overlapped with spectra of the vocal signals. Since tuning to frequencies contained within the highest frequency USVs is limited (<15% of IC units), responses to these vocalizations are correspondingly limited (<5% of sound-responsive units). These results highlight a paradox of USV processing in some rodents: although USVs are the most abundant social vocalization, their representation and the representation of corresponding frequencies are less than lower frequency social vocalizations. We interpret this paradox in light of observations suggesting that USVs with lower frequency elements (<50 kHz) are associated with increased emotional intensity and engage a larger population of neurons in the mouse auditory system.

The Mouse Inferior Colliculus Responds Preferentially to Non-Ultrasonic Vocalizations

The inferior colliculus (IC), the midbrain auditory integration center, analyzes information about social vocalizations and provides substrates for higher level processing of vocal signals. We used multi-channel recordings to characterize and localize responses to social vocalizations and synthetic stimuli within the IC of female and male mice, both urethane-anesthetized and unanesthetized. We compared responses to ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) with other vocalizations in the mouse repertoire and related vocal responses to frequency tuning, IC subdivisions, and sex. Responses to lower frequency, broadband social vocalizations were widespread in IC, well represented throughout the tonotopic axis, across subdivisions, and in both sexes. Responses to USVs were much more limited. Although we observed some differences in tonal and vocal responses by sex and subdivision, representations of vocal responses by sex and subdivision were largely the same. For most units, responses to vocal signals occurred only when frequency response areas overlapped with spectra of the vocal signals. Since tuning to frequencies contained within the highest frequency USVs is limited (< 15% of IC units), responses to these vocalizations are correspondingly limited (< 5% of sound-responsive units). These results highlight a paradox of USV processing in some rodents: although USVs are the most abundant social vocalization, their representation and the representation of corresponding frequencies is less than lower frequency social vocalizations. We interpret this paradox in light of observations suggesting that USVs with lower frequency elements (<50 kHz) are associated with increased emotional intensity and engage a larger population of neurons in the mouse auditory system.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

The inferior colliculus (IC) integrates multiple inputs to analyze information about social vocalizations. In mice, we show that the most common type of social vocalization, the ultrasonic vocalization or USV, was poorly represented in IC compared to lower frequency vocalizations. For most neurons, responses to vocal signals occurred only when frequency response areas overlapped with vocalization spectra. These results highlight a paradox of USV processing in some rodent auditory systems: although USVs are the most abundant social vocalization, their representation and representation of corresponding frequencies is less than lower frequency social vocalizations. These results suggest that USVs with lower frequency elements (<50 kHz)-associated with increased emotional intensity-will engage a larger population of neurons in the mouse auditory system.

Listening to your partner: serotonin increases male responsiveness to female vocal signals in mice

The context surrounding vocal communication can have a strong influence on how vocal signals are perceived. The serotonergic system is well-positioned for modulating the perception of communication signals according to context, because serotonergic neurons are responsive to social context, influence social behavior, and innervate auditory regions. Animals like lab mice can be excellent models for exploring how serotonin affects the primary neural systems involved in vocal perception, including within central auditory regions like the inferior colliculus (IC). Within the IC, serotonergic activity reflects not only the presence of a conspecific, but also the valence of a given social interaction. To assess whether serotonin can influence the perception of vocal signals in male mice, we manipulated serotonin systemically with an injection of its precursor 5-HTP, and locally in the IC with an infusion of fenfluramine, a serotonin reuptake blocker. Mice then participated in a behavioral assay in which males suppress their ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) in response to the playback of female broadband vocalizations (BBVs), used in defensive aggression by females when interacting with males. Both 5-HTP and fenfluramine increased the suppression of USVs during BBV playback relative to controls. 5-HTP additionally decreased the baseline production of a specific type of USV and male investigation, but neither drug treatment strongly affected male digging or grooming. These findings show that serotonin modifies behavioral responses to vocal signals in mice, in part by acting in auditory brain regions, and suggest that mouse vocal behavior can serve as a useful model for exploring the mechanisms of context in human communication.

Cortical circuits modulate mouse social vocalizations

Vocalizations provide a means of communication with high fidelity and information rate for many species. Diencephalon and brainstem neural circuits have been shown to control mouse vocal production; however, the role of cortical circuits in this process is debatable. Using electrical and optogenetic stimulation, we identified a cortical region in the anterior cingulate cortex in which stimulation elicits ultrasonic vocalizations. Moreover, fiber photometry showed an increase in Ca2+ dynamics preceding vocal initiation, whereas optogenetic suppression in this cortical area caused mice to emit fewer vocalizations. Last, electrophysiological recordings indicated a differential increase in neural activity in response to female social exposure dependent on vocal output. Together, these results indicate that the cortex is a key node in the neuronal circuits controlling vocal behavior in mice.

The Neurobiology of Love and Pair Bonding from Human and Animal Perspectives

Love is a powerful emotional experience that is rooted in ancient neurobiological processes shared with other species that pair bond. Considerable insights have been gained into the neural mechanisms driving the evolutionary antecedents of love by studies in animal models of pair bonding, particularly in monogamous species such as prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster). Here, we provide an overview of the roles of oxytocin, dopamine, and vasopressin in regulating neural circuits responsible for generating bonds in animals and humans alike. We begin with the evolutionary origins of bonding in mother-infant relationships and then examine the neurobiological underpinnings of each stage of bonding. Oxytocin and dopamine interact to link the neural representation of partner stimuli with the social reward of courtship and mating to create a nurturing bond between individuals. Vasopressin facilitates mate-guarding behaviors, potentially related to the human experience of jealousy. We further discuss the psychological and physiological stress following partner separation and their adaptive function, as well as evidence of the positive health outcomes associated with being pair-bonded based on both animal and human studies.

What do mammals have to say about the neurobiology of acoustic communication?

Auditory communication is crucial across taxa, including humans, because it enables individuals to convey information about threats, food sources, mating opportunities, and other social cues necessary for survival. Comparative approaches to auditory communication will help bridge gaps across taxa and facilitate our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying this complex task. In this work, we briefly review the field of auditory communication processing and the classical champion animal, the songbird. In addition, we discuss other mammalian species that are advancing the field. In particular, we emphasize mice and bats, highlighting the characteristics that may inform how we think about communication processing.

Playback of broadband vocalizations of female mice suppresses male ultrasonic calls

Although male vocalizations during opposite- sex interaction have been heavily studied as sexually selected signals, the understanding of the roles of female vocal signals produced in this context is more limited. During intersexual interactions between mice, males produce a majority of ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs), while females produce a majority of human-audible squeaks, also called broadband vocalizations (BBVs). BBVs may be produced in conjunction with defensive aggression, making it difficult to assess whether males respond to BBVs themselves. To assess the direct effect of BBVs on male behavior, we used a split-cage paradigm in which high rates of male USVs were elicited by female presence on the other side of a barrier, but which precluded extensive male-female contact and the spontaneous production of BBVs. In this paradigm, playback of female BBVs decreased USV production, which recovered after the playback period. Trials in which female vocalizations were prevented by the use of female bedding alone or of anesthetized females as stimuli also showed a decrease in response to BBV playback. No non-vocal behaviors declined during playback, although digging behavior increased. Similar to BBVs, WNs also robustly suppressed USV production, albeit to a significantly larger extent. USVs suppression had two distinct temporal components. When grouped in 5-second bins, USVs interleaved with bursts of stimulus BBVs. USV suppression also adapted to BBV playback on the order of minutes. Adaptation occurred more rapidly in males that were housed individually as opposed to socially for a week prior to testing, suggesting that the adaptation trajectory is sensitive to social experience. These findings suggest the possibility that vocal interaction between male and female mice, with males suppressing USVs in response to BBVs, may influence the dynamics of communicative behavior.

Hearing, touching, and multisensory integration during mate choice

Mate choice is a potent generator of diversity and a fundamental pillar for sexual selection and evolution. Mate choice is a multistage affair, where complex sensory information and elaborate actions are used to identify, scrutinize, and evaluate potential mating partners. While widely accepted that communication during mate assessment relies on multimodal cues, most studies investigating the mechanisms controlling this fundamental behavior have restricted their focus to the dominant sensory modality used by the species under examination, such as vision in humans and smell in rodents. However, despite their undeniable importance for the initial recognition, attraction, and approach towards a potential mate, other modalities gain relevance as the interaction progresses, amongst which are touch and audition. In this review, we will: (1) focus on recent findings of how touch and audition can contribute to the evaluation and choice of mating partners, and (2) outline our current knowledge regarding the neuronal circuits processing touch and audition (amongst others) in the context of mate choice and ask (3) how these neural circuits are connected to areas that have been studied in the light of multisensory integration.

Effects of a GnRH agonist on sex behavior in females of the southern giant pouched rat

In general, males should be particularly attentive to cues of sexual availability and females should advertise accordingly. Vaginal patency (i.e., the openness of the vagina) is a reliable indicator of sexual maturity; if the vagina is closed, the female is unable to copulate. The southern giant pouched rat (Cricetomys ansorgei) is unusual because females can have fully fused vaginal openings (i.e., vaginal nonpatency) despite being considered 'adults' by other metrics. Moreover, some females reversibly close their vaginal openings. Thus, vaginal patency in the pouched rat is a 'flexible' reproductive state. We subcutaneously implanted a long-acting GnRH agonist (deslorelin), which over time inhibits sex steroid secretion, to better understand the endocrinology and social behavior relating to vaginal patency in this species. We hypothesized that altering GnRH would impact both patency and behavior through its effects on circulating levels of estradiol. Six months of deslorelin treatment did not alter vaginal patency. Behaviorally, deslorelin-treated females spent less time interacting with, and were more aggressive towards males (compared to controls). Notably, deslorelin did not alter female scent marking. We conclude that behavioral receptivity, but not vaginal patency, is impacted by GnRH hormonal cascades in the pouched rat.

Prosocial Effects of Nonpsychotropic Cannabis sativa in Mice

Introduction:Cannabis sativa L. (C. sativa) is used since ancient times to produce fabrics, baskets, and cords. Later, different ethnic groups used to burn the leaves and flowers of psychotropic cultivars with high Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (D9-THC) levels, during the religious or propitiatory rites to alter the state of consciousness. To date, it is not known whether also nonpsychotropic cultivars of C. sativa were used during these rites, and whether these varieties could have an effect on human behavior. This study aimed to evaluate the behavioral effects of an extract of nonpsychotropic C. sativa (NP-CS) in mice. Materials and Methods: An extract of a nonpsychotropic cultivar of C. sativa dissolved in medium-chain triglyceride oil was used and the different phytochemical components were evaluated. The relative composition in terms of phytocannabinoid content was assessed by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to UV detection (RP-HPLC-UV), and the volatile components were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In addition, the behavioral effect of NP-CS was assessed on a wild-type mouse model. The animals were treated for 14 days (oral gavage) and motility, anxiety, and social effects were assessed. Results: RP-HPLC-UV analysis demonstrated that D9-THC was present in lower concentration with respect to other cannabinoids, like cannabidiol. Furthermore, the GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of several terpenoids. Concerning in vivo studies, chronic treatment with NP-CS did not alter body weight, motility, and anxiety and increased social interaction. Conclusions: This study highlighted the prosocial effects of NP-CS.

From Mating to Milk Access: A Review of Reproductive Vocal Communication in Mice

Vocalisations play a central role in rodent communication, especially in reproduction related behaviours. In adult mice (Mus musculus) the emission of ultrasonic vocalisations (USVs) has been observed in courtship and mating behaviour, especially by males. These have been found to have distinctive individual signatures that influence female choice of mating partner. The most recent findings show that vocal communication also has a role in parental cooperation, in that female mice communicate with male partners in ultrasonic frequencies to induce paternal behaviour. Infant vocalisations form the other important part of reproductive vocal communication. Although born deaf, neonatal mice are capable of producing vocalisations since birth. As an altricial species, successful mother-infant communication is essential for survival, and these vocalisations are important modulators of maternal behaviour. Three main types of infant vocalisations have been identified and characterised. Most research has addressed pure USVs, related to stressful situations (e.g., cold, isolation, handling, presence of unfamiliar males or predators), which usually elicit maternal search and retrieval. In addition, broad-band spectrum signals, emitted post-partum during cleaning of foetal membranes, inhibit biting and injury by adults and “wriggling calls,” emitted during suckling, release maternal behaviour (such as licking). Several variables have been identified to modulate vocalisations in mice, including individual characteristics such as strain/genotype, age, sex, and experimental factors such as pharmacological compounds and social context. In recent years, there has been a big increase in the knowledge about the characteristics of vocal communication in rodents due to recent technological advances as well as a growing interest from the neuroscience community. Vocalisation analysis has become an essential tool for phenotyping and evaluating emotional states. In this review, we will (i) provide a comprehensive summary of the current knowledge on mouse reproductive vocal communication and (ii) discuss the most recent findings in order to provide a broad overview on this topic.

Social Experience Interacts with Serotonin to Affect Functional Connectivity in the Social Behavior Network following Playback of Social Vocalizations in Mice

Past social experience affects the circuitry responsible for producing and interpreting current behaviors. The social behavior network (SBN) is a candidate neural ensemble to investigate the consequences of early-life social isolation. The SBN interprets and produces social behaviors, such as vocalizations, through coordinated patterns of activity (functional connectivity) between its multiple nuclei. However, the SBN is relatively unexplored with respect to murine vocal processing. The serotonergic system is sensitive to past experience and innervates many nodes of the SBN; therefore, we tested whether serotonin signaling interacts with social experience to affect patterns of immediate early gene (IEG; cFos) induction in the male SBN following playback of social vocalizations. Male mice were separated into either social housing of three mice per cage or into isolated housing at 18-24 d postnatal. After 28-30 d in housing treatment, mice were parsed into one of three drug treatment groups: control, fenfluramine (FEN; increases available serotonin), or pCPA (depletes available serotonin) and exposed to a 60-min playback of female broadband vocalizations (BBVs). FEN generally increased the number of cFos-immunoreactive (-ir) neurons within the SBN, but effects were more pronounced in socially isolated mice. Despite a generalized increase in cFos immunoreactivity, isolated mice had reduced functional connectivity, clustering, and modularity compared with socially reared mice. These results are analogous to observations of functional dysconnectivity in persons with psychopathologies and suggests that early-life social isolation modulates serotonergic regulation of social networks.