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Deshpande G, Zhao S, Waggoner P, Beyers R, Morrison E, Huynh N, Vodyanoy V, Denney TS, Katz JS. Two Separate Brain Networks for Predicting Trainability and Tracking Training-Related Plasticity in Working Dogs. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1082. [PMID: 38612321 PMCID: PMC11010877 DOI: 10.3390/ani14071082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Functional brain connectivity based on resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has been shown to be correlated with human personality and behavior. In this study, we sought to know whether capabilities and traits in dogs can be predicted from their resting-state connectivity, as in humans. We trained awake dogs to keep their head still inside a 3T MRI scanner while resting-state fMRI data was acquired. Canine behavior was characterized by an integrated behavioral score capturing their hunting, retrieving, and environmental soundness. Functional scans and behavioral measures were acquired at three different time points across detector dog training. The first time point (TP1) was prior to the dogs entering formal working detector dog training. The second time point (TP2) was soon after formal detector dog training. The third time point (TP3) was three months' post detector dog training while the dogs were engaged in a program of maintenance training for detection work. We hypothesized that the correlation between resting-state FC in the dog brain and behavior measures would significantly change during their detection training process (from TP1 to TP2) and would maintain for the subsequent several months of detection work (from TP2 to TP3). To further study the resting-state FC features that can predict the success of training, dogs at TP1 were divided into a successful group and a non-successful group. We observed a core brain network which showed relatively stable (with respect to time) patterns of interaction that were significantly stronger in successful detector dogs compared to failures and whose connectivity strength at the first time point predicted whether a given dog was eventually successful in becoming a detector dog. A second ontologically based flexible peripheral network was observed whose changes in connectivity strength with detection training tracked corresponding changes in behavior over the training program. Comparing dog and human brains, the functional connectivity between the brain stem and the frontal cortex in dogs corresponded to that between the locus coeruleus and left middle frontal gyrus in humans, suggestive of a shared mechanism for learning and retrieval of odors. Overall, the findings point toward the influence of phylogeny and ontogeny in dogs producing two dissociable functional neural networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gopikrishna Deshpande
- Auburn University Neuroimaging Center, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; (S.Z.); (R.B.); (N.H.); (T.S.D.J.)
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Alabama Advanced Imaging Consortium, Birmingham, AL 36849, USA
- Center for Neuroscience, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore 560029, India
- Department of Heritage Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad 502285, India
| | - Sinan Zhao
- Auburn University Neuroimaging Center, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; (S.Z.); (R.B.); (N.H.); (T.S.D.J.)
| | - Paul Waggoner
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA;
| | - Ronald Beyers
- Auburn University Neuroimaging Center, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; (S.Z.); (R.B.); (N.H.); (T.S.D.J.)
| | - Edward Morrison
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Pharmacology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; (E.M.); (V.V.)
| | - Nguyen Huynh
- Auburn University Neuroimaging Center, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; (S.Z.); (R.B.); (N.H.); (T.S.D.J.)
| | - Vitaly Vodyanoy
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Pharmacology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; (E.M.); (V.V.)
| | - Thomas S. Denney
- Auburn University Neuroimaging Center, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; (S.Z.); (R.B.); (N.H.); (T.S.D.J.)
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Alabama Advanced Imaging Consortium, Birmingham, AL 36849, USA
- Center for Neuroscience, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Jeffrey S. Katz
- Auburn University Neuroimaging Center, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; (S.Z.); (R.B.); (N.H.); (T.S.D.J.)
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Alabama Advanced Imaging Consortium, Birmingham, AL 36849, USA
- Center for Neuroscience, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
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Beckmann KM, Wang-Leandro A, Steffen F, Richter H, Dennler M, Bektas R, Carrera I, Haller S. Diffusion tensor-based analysis of white matter in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1325521. [PMID: 38192722 PMCID: PMC10773822 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1325521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The understanding of epileptic seizure pathogenesis has evolved over time, and it is now generally accepted that not only are cortical and subcortical areas involved but also the connection of these regions in the white matter (WM). Recent human neuroimaging studies confirmed the involvement of the WM in several epilepsy syndromes. Neuroimaging studies investigating WM integrity with diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in canine idiopathic epilepsy are lacking. This study aimed to test the hypothesis that WM diffusion changes can be found in dogs affected by idiopathic epilepsy. Method Twenty-six dogs with idiopathic epilepsy (15 Border Collies and 11 Greater Swiss Mountain dogs) and 24 healthy controls (11 Beagle dogs, 5 Border Collies, and 8 Greater Swiss Mountain dogs) were prospectively enrolled. Most dogs with idiopathic epilepsy (17/26) were enrolled within 3 months after seizure onset. Diffusion tensor imaging of the brain with 32 diffusion directions (low b value = 0 s/mm2; maximal b value = 800 s/mm2) was performed in a 3 Tesla scanner. Tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS), a voxel-based approach, was used to investigate changes in fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD) in the idiopathic epilepsy group compared to the healthy control group. Additionally, FA and MD were investigated in the region of corpus callosum and cingulate white matter in both groups. Results We observed subtle changes in WM DTI between the idiopathic epilepsy group and the healthy control group limited to cingulate WM, with a significantly lower FA in the idiopathic epilepsy group compared to the healthy control group in the region of interest (ROI) approach (p = 0.027). No significant changes were found between the idiopathic epilepsy group and the healthy control group in the TBSS analysis and in the corpus callosum in the ROI approach. Conclusion This study supports the cingulate area as a target structure in canine epilepsy. The subtle changes only might be explained by the short duration of epilepsy, small sample sizes, and the higher variability in canine brain anatomy. Furthermore, all included dogs showed generalized tonic-clonic seizures, possibly affected by generalized epilepsy syndrome, which are also associated with less pronounced DTI changes in humans than focal epilepsy syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin M. Beckmann
- Section of Neurology, Department of Small Animals, Vetsuisse Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Adriano Wang-Leandro
- Clinic for Diagnostic Imaging, Department of Diagnostics and Clinical Services, Vetsuisse-Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Frank Steffen
- Section of Neurology, Department of Small Animals, Vetsuisse Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Henning Richter
- Clinic for Diagnostic Imaging, Department of Diagnostics and Clinical Services, Vetsuisse-Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Dennler
- Clinic for Diagnostic Imaging, Department of Diagnostics and Clinical Services, Vetsuisse-Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Rima Bektas
- Section of Anaesthesiology, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Vetsuisse-Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ines Carrera
- Vet Oracle Teleradiology, Norfolk, United Kingdom
| | - Sven Haller
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Radiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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Chen Q, Xu Y, Christiaen E, Wu GR, De Witte S, Vanhove C, Saunders J, Peremans K, Baeken C. Structural connectome alterations in anxious dogs: a DTI-based study. Sci Rep 2023; 13:9946. [PMID: 37337053 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-37121-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Anxiety and fear are dysfunctional behaviors commonly observed in domesticated dogs. Although dogs and humans share psychopathological similarities, little is known about how dysfunctional fear behaviors are represented in brain networks in dogs diagnosed with anxiety disorders. A combination of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and graph theory was used to investigate the underlying structural connections of dysfunctional anxiety in anxious dogs and compared with healthy dogs with normal behavior. The degree of anxiety was assessed using the Canine Behavioral Assessment & Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ), a widely used, validated questionnaire for abnormal behaviors in dogs. Anxious dogs showed significantly decreased clustering coefficient ([Formula: see text]), decreased global efficiency ([Formula: see text]), and increased small-worldness (σ) when compared with healthy dogs. The nodal parameters that differed between the anxious dogs and healthy dogs were mainly located in the posterior part of the brain, including the occipital lobe, posterior cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, mesencephalon, and cerebellum. Furthermore, the nodal degree ([Formula: see text]) of the left cerebellum was significantly negatively correlated with "excitability" in the C-BARQ of anxious dogs. These findings could contribute to the understanding of a disrupted brain structural connectome underlying the pathological mechanisms of anxiety-related disorders in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinyuan Chen
- Ghent Experimental Psychiatry (GHEP) Lab, Department of Head and Skin, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Yangfeng Xu
- Ghent Experimental Psychiatry (GHEP) Lab, Department of Head and Skin, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Morphology, Imaging, Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Emma Christiaen
- Medical Image and Signal Processing (MEDISIP), Department of Electronics and Information Systems, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Guo-Rong Wu
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- School of Psychology, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, China
| | - Sara De Witte
- Ghent Experimental Psychiatry (GHEP) Lab, Department of Head and Skin, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Neurology and Bru-BRAIN, University Hospital (UZ Brussel), Brussels, Belgium
- Neuroprotection & Neuromodulation Research Group (NEUR), Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Christian Vanhove
- Medical Image and Signal Processing (MEDISIP), Department of Electronics and Information Systems, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jimmy Saunders
- Department of Morphology, Imaging, Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Kathelijne Peremans
- Department of Morphology, Imaging, Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Chris Baeken
- Ghent Experimental Psychiatry (GHEP) Lab, Department of Head and Skin, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital (UZ Brussel), Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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Szabó D, Janosov M, Czeibert K, Gácsi M, Kubinyi E. Central nodes of canine functional brain networks are concentrated in the cingulate gyrus. Brain Struct Funct 2023; 228:831-843. [PMID: 36995432 PMCID: PMC10147816 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-023-02625-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
Compared to the field of human fMRI, knowledge about functional networks in dogs is scarce. In this paper, we present the first anatomically-defined ROI (region of interest) based functional network map of the companion dog brain. We scanned 33 awake dogs in a "task-free condition". Our trained subjects, similarly to humans, remain willingly motionless during scanning. Our goal is to provide a reference map with a current best estimate for the organisation of the cerebral cortex as measured by functional connectivity. The findings extend a previous spatial ICA (independent component analysis) study (Szabo et al. in Sci Rep 9(1):1.25. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-51752-2 , 2019), with the current study including (1) more subjects and (2) improved scanning protocol to avoid asymmetric lateral distortions. In dogs, similarly to humans (Sacca et al. in J Neurosci Methods. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2021.109084 , 2021), ageing resulted in increasing framewise displacement (i.e. head motion) in the scanner. Despite the inherently different approaches between model-free ICA and model-based ROI, the resulting functional networks show a remarkable similarity. However, in the present study, we did not detect a designated auditory network. Instead, we identified two highly connected, lateralised multi-region networks extending to non-homotropic regions (Sylvian L, Sylvian R), including the respective auditory regions, together with the associative and sensorimotor cortices and the insular cortex. The attention and control networks were not split into two fully separated, dedicated networks. Overall, in dogs, fronto-parietal networks and hubs were less dominant than in humans, with the cingulate gyrus playing a central role. The current manuscript provides the first attempt to map whole-brain functional networks in dogs via a model-based approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dóra Szabó
- Department of Ethology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Milán Janosov
- Department of Network and Data Science, Central European University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Kálmán Czeibert
- Department of Ethology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Márta Gácsi
- Department of Ethology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
- ELKH-ELTE Comparative Ethology Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Enikő Kubinyi
- Department of Ethology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
- MTA-ELTE Lendület Momentum Companion Animal Research Group, Budapest, Hungary.
- ELTE NAP Canine Brain Research Group, Budapest, Hungary.
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5
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Beckmann KM, Wang-Leandro A, Richter H, Bektas RN, Steffen F, Dennler M, Carrera I, Haller S. Increased resting state connectivity in the anterior default mode network of idiopathic epileptic dogs. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23854. [PMID: 34903807 PMCID: PMC8668945 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03349-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Epilepsy is one of the most common chronic, neurological diseases in humans and dogs and considered to be a network disease. In human epilepsy altered functional connectivity in different large-scale networks have been identified with functional resting state magnetic resonance imaging. Since large-scale resting state networks have been consistently identified in anesthetised dogs’ application of this technique became promising in canine epilepsy research. The aim of the present study was to investigate differences in large-scale resting state networks in epileptic dogs compared to healthy controls. Our hypothesis was, that large-scale networks differ between epileptic dogs and healthy control dogs. A group of 17 dogs (Border Collies and Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs) with idiopathic epilepsy was compared to 20 healthy control dogs under a standardized sevoflurane anaesthesia protocol. Group level independent component analysis with dimensionality of 20 components, dual regression and two-sample t test were performed and revealed significantly increased functional connectivity in the anterior default mode network of idiopathic epileptic dogs compared to healthy control dogs (p = 0.00060). This group level differences between epileptic dogs and healthy control dogs identified using a rather simple data driven approach could serve as a starting point for more advanced resting state network analysis in epileptic dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin M Beckmann
- Section of Neurology, Department of Small Animals, Vetsuisse Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Adriano Wang-Leandro
- Clinic for Diagnostic Imaging, Department of Diagnostics and Clinical Services, Vetsuisse-Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Henning Richter
- Clinic for Diagnostic Imaging, Department of Diagnostics and Clinical Services, Vetsuisse-Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Clinic for Neuroradiology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Rima N Bektas
- Section of Anaesthesiology, Department of Diagnostics and Clinical Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Frank Steffen
- Section of Neurology, Department of Small Animals, Vetsuisse Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Dennler
- Clinic for Diagnostic Imaging, Department of Diagnostics and Clinical Services, Vetsuisse-Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ines Carrera
- Willows Veterinary Centre and Referral Service, Highlands Road, Shirley, UK
| | - Sven Haller
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Radiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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Barry EF, Loftus JP, Luh WM, de Leon MJ, Niogi SN, Johnson PJ. Diffusion tensor-based analysis of white matter in the healthy aging canine brain. Neurobiol Aging 2021; 105:129-136. [PMID: 34062488 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2021.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
White matter dysfunction and degeneration have been a topic of great interest in healthy and pathological aging. While ex vivo studies have investigated age-related changes in canines, little in vivo canine aging research exists. Quantitative diffusion MRI such as diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) has demonstrated aging and neurodegenerative white matter changes in humans. However, this method has not been applied and adapted in vivo to canine populations. This study aimed to test the hypothesis that white matter diffusion changes frequently reported in human aging are also found in aged canines. The study used Tract Based Spatial Statistics (TBSS) and a region of interest (ROI) approach to investigate age related changes in fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AxD) and radial diffusivity (RD). The results show that, compared to younger animals, aged canines have significant decreases in FA in parietal and temporal regions as well as the corpus callosum and fornix. Additionally, AxD decreases were observed in parietal, frontal, and midbrain regions. Similarly, an age- related increase in RD was observed in the right parietal lobe while MD decreases were found in the midbrain. These findings suggest that canine samples show commonalities with human brain aging as both exhibit similar white matter diffusion tensor changes with increasing age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica F Barry
- Cornell College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
| | - John P Loftus
- Cornell College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
| | - Wen-Ming Luh
- National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Mony J de Leon
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Sumit N Niogi
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
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Steiner AR, Rousseau-Blass F, Schroeter A, Hartnack S, Bettschart-Wolfensberger R. Systematic Review: Anaesthetic Protocols and Management as Confounders in Rodent Blood Oxygen Level Dependent Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (BOLD fMRI)-Part A: Effects of Changes in Physiological Parameters. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:577119. [PMID: 33192261 PMCID: PMC7646331 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.577119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: To understand brain function in health and disease, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is widely used in rodent models. Because animals need to be immobilised for image acquisition, fMRI is commonly performed under anaesthesia. The choice of anaesthetic protocols and may affect fMRI readouts, either directly or via changing physiological balance, and thereby threaten the scientific validity of fMRI in rodents. Methods: The present study systematically reviewed the literature investigating the influence of different anaesthesia regimes and changes in physiological parameters as confounders of blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) fMRI in rats and mice. Four databases were searched, studies selected according to pre-defined criteria, and risk of bias assessed for each study. Results are reported in two separate articles; this part of the review focuses on effects of changes in physiological parameters. Results: A total of 121 publications was included, of which 49 addressed effects of changes in physiological parameters. Risk of bias was high in all included studies. Blood oxygenation [arterial partial pressure of oxygen (paO2)], ventilation [arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (paCO2)] and arterial blood pressure affected BOLD fMRI readouts across various experimental paradigms. Conclusions: Blood oxygenation, ventilation and arterial blood pressure should be monitored and maintained at stable physiological levels throughout experiments. Appropriate anaesthetic management and monitoring are crucial to obtain scientifically valid, reproducible results from fMRI studies in rodent models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline R. Steiner
- Section of Anaesthesiology, Department of Clinical and Diagnostic Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Frédérik Rousseau-Blass
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Aileen Schroeter
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sonja Hartnack
- Section of Epidemiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Regula Bettschart-Wolfensberger
- Section of Anaesthesiology, Department of Clinical and Diagnostic Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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