Precarious employment and self-reported experiences of unwanted sexual attention and sexual harassment at work. An analysis of the European Working Conditions Survey

Personality processes of everyday moral courage

INTRODUCTION

Moral courage manifests in acts intended to intervene to stop or redress witnessed moral norm violations, despite the risk of negative consequences for the intervener. We investigate moral courage in everyday life and ask what personality processes are involved. Based on an extended process model of moral courage, we derived hypotheses on cognitive and emotional processes that should facilitate or hinder intervention. Further, we identified candidate personality dispositions that should shape these processes and thereby predict who tends to intervene against others' norm violations and who does not.

METHODS

Using a quota-based sample of the German population (N = 1108), we conducted a personality assessment, followed by a 7-day experience sampling during which participants reported norm violations witnessed in their daily life as well as their cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions.

RESULTS

In total, 678 participants reported 1965 norm violations and intervened against 32% of them. Dispositional self-efficacy facilitated intervention by increasing a sense of efficacy when confronted with others' norm violations. Conversely, dispositional moral disengagement hindered intervention by reducing perceived own responsibility.

DISCUSSION

Our findings provide novel insights into the situations affording moral courage in everyday life, and the personality processes that uniquely guide this behavior.

Sexual Harassment at Work: Scoping Review of Reviews

Background

This article presents a scoping review of reviews on the topic of Sexual Harassment (SH) in the workplace, a subject that has garnered significant global attention. The phenomenon of SH poses a critical challenge to equal opportunity and gender equity in the workplace.

Aim

The review aims to synthesize existing research, focusing on the antecedents, consequences, and interventions related to SH.

Methods

The inclusion and exclusion criteria were established based on the research question, which was adapted from the PICO strategy. A protocol was devised following the "DS-CPC" format, which encompasses considerations related to Documents, Studies, Construct, Participants, and Contexts. The search was carried utilizing several automated databases, specifically focusing on the fields of Psychology, Behavioral Sciences, and Health. Preliminary search yielded a total of 468 articles, and the review ultimately encompassed a total of 22 articles.

Results

This review critically examines the complexity of SH, including the role of bystanders, the perpetuation of myths and misconceptions, and the exploitation of power imbalances by harassers. It also explores the manifestation of SH in male-dominated workplaces and the varying levels of organizational awareness and response to such incidents. The review highlights the importance of fostering an organizational culture that not only acknowledges and protects victims but also implements effective measures to penalize perpetrators.

Implications

It aims to elucidate the intricacies of SH and advocate for a workplace environment characterized by respect and accountability. Through this comprehensive analysis, the article seeks to inform and guide future research, policy development, and organizational practices concerning SH.

Workplace bullying and sexual harassment at work among hotel housekeepers in the Balearic Islands (Spain)

Introduction

Hotel housekeepers are close to being a 100% feminized occupational group in Spain. This fact, coupled with some features of the job, places them at high risk of sexual harassment at work and bullying in the workplace. This study aims to explore experiences of sexual harassment at work and workplace bullying among hotel housekeepers in the Balearic Islands. Second, it aims to describe and estimate the prevalence of both phenomena.

Methods

This is a mixed-methods study. Ten semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants, and six focus groups were held with hotel housekeepers. Additionally, a quantitative cross-sectional study (n = 1,043) was undertaken.

Results

Most participants in focus groups had been sexually harassed at work. However, they had normalized this kind of situations, not labeling themselves as victims of sexual harassment; and harassment events were seen as unimportant, normal, and unquestioned, as well as being part of their daily work. Hotel housekeepers who were sexually harassed indicated high levels of stress at work and low social support. The prevalence of different workplace bullying behaviors was quite high among hotel housekeepers working in the Balearic Islands. Some were associated with poorer self-rated health, less satisfaction with the job and the salary, lower social support, and higher levels of stress. Despite this, qualitative methods informed us that less severe behaviors were normalized and perceived by hotel housekeepers as intrinsic to their job.

Discussion

The results show the high tolerance to less severe expressions of sexual harassment at work and workplace bullying, as well as difficulties in or reluctance to labeling this kind of experiences as such.

Direct and indirect effects of workplace sexual harassment on the productivity of victims and witnesses: The preventive role of equitable management

This research demonstrates the impact of equitable management as a protective factor against workplace sexual harassment (WSH) and its consequences on labor productivity. It also shows that there are invisible costs for colleagues who witness WSH, through counterproductive behaviors, such as sabotage or production deviance, with an indirect decrease in labor productivity. We used a structured questionnaire that was answered by 827 women from 37 small, medium, and large private companies in the Lima Metropolitan Area, Peru. We designed a conceptual model and tested it using structural covariance equations. The results indicate that 33.5 % of women have been sexually harassed over the last 12 months, an average of 6.6 times, while 18.9 % of women have supported co-workers who were victims of WSH. Being sexually harassed at work decreases labor productivity by 43.1 % and increases the intention to desert the company by 15.2 %. Witnessing WSH increases the intention to drop out by 11.3 % and increases counterproductive behaviors by 39.6 %. We found that equitable management is a preventative factor for WSH. Equitable management not only decreases the probability of the occurrence of WSH by 2.2 times but also-if it exists-reduces its pernicious impact on productivity through various indirect effects. Equitable management can reduce the labor productivity costs caused by WSH by 4.6 times.

Increased risk of sleep problems according to employment precariousness among paid employees in Korea

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between precarious employment (PE) and sleep problems among wage workers in Korea.

METHODS

Data from 29,437 wage workers were obtained from the 6th Korean Working Conditions Survey. PE was defined based on four dimensions: employment temporariness, irregularity, lack of protection, and economic vulnerability. A PE index indicating employment precariousness was derived. The outcome variables were three sleep problems experienced over the past year: difficulty initiating asleep; difficulty maintaining sleep' and fatigue upon waking. Multiple logistic regression was performed after adjusting for age, educational level, occupation, job tenure, company size, and working hours, to estimate the association between PE and sleep problems.

RESULTS

For both sexes, the risk of all sleep problems significantly increased as the precariousness of employment increased, showing a dose-response relationship.

CONCLUSION

An increased risk of sleep problems is evident as employment becomes more precarious. These findings could help improve the health of workers with PE by addressing sleep problems.

Factors associated with abuse in the workplace in Bangladesh: An empirical investigation

Workplace abuse is a much-discussed global phenomenon in the world of work. Bangladesh, being a developing country that relies heavily on its labor resource, should have definite methods to protect the workers' rights and safety. Unfortunately, weak frameworks are in place to prevent it, and the lack of awareness among the workers is helping the problem to establish its roots more firmly. Despite the gravity of workplace abuse and its consequences, comprehensive studies for addressing or understanding the problem at a national level is difficult to find in the context of Bangladesh. Using the latest nationally representative survey namely the Quarterly Labour Force Survey (QLFS) 2016-17, this study attempts to bridge the existing gaps through an empirical investigation of the factors associated with workplace abuse in Bangladesh. A total of 16,646 participants with males of 75.9% and females of 24.1% are used for the analysis. A probit model analysis has been applied in this paper to explore how the workers' demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, as well as workplace features, may be associated with experiencing abuse in the workplace. The study finds that younger, less educated, females, elementary job-holders, non-governmental organization workers or those who work in the manufacturing, or services sector are more likely to be abused in the workplace. The study also concludes that the number of workers employed, and the hazardous workplace environment may be related to the probability of being abused. Furthermore, this study shows that full-time workers, workers who are employed temporarily or have an oral contract may face abuse in the workplace more.

Inequality in workplace support for various types of precarious workers compared with permanent workers in Japan: A cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to examine, by sex, whether precarious workers in Japan receive less support in the workplace than permanent workers.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study using an online questionnaire in 2022. We stratified participants by sex and performed modified Poisson regression analysis. The outcomes were support from supervisors, co-workers, occupational health professionals, and no one. Adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) were calculated for contract workers, part-time workers, and dispatched workers, using permanent workers as reference.

RESULTS

This study had 21 047 participants. For men, 87.9% were permanent workers; for women, 50.7% were permanent workers and 37.3% were part-time workers. For workplace support, 47.5% of men and 45.2% of women selected superiors; 41.8% of men and 50.5% of women selected colleagues; 16.8% of men and 6.2% of women selected occupational health professionals. Female contract workers were less likely to receive support from their supervisors (aPR 0.88) or co-workers (aPR 0.89). Male part-time workers were less likely to be supported by their co-workers (aPR 0.86). Dispatched workers were less likely to be supported by their supervisors (men aPR 0.71, women aPR 0.84) and co-workers (men aPR 0.73, women aPR 0.77). Part-time and dispatched workers were less likely to receive support from occupational health professionals.

CONCLUSIONS

Precarious workers could get less workplace support than permanent workers. This may contribute to occupational health problems with precarious workers.

Sexual harassment among employees and students at a large Swedish university: who are exposed, to what, by whom and where - a cross-sectional prevalence study

BACKGROUND

Sexual harassment (SH) in the workplace is prevalent and associated with poor health. Universities are large workplaces with complex formal and informal power relations, which may influence the prevalence of SH. Although employees and students share the university context, few studies on SH have included both groups. The overall aim of the study was to investigate SH among employees and students at a large Swedish public university regarding types of harassment, prevalence in different groups, characteristics of the perpetrators, and the circumstances in which it occurs.

METHODS

A cross-sectional analysis was performed, based on a web-based survey with 120 items that was sent out to all staff, including PhD students (N = 8,238) and students (N = 30,244) in November 2019. The response rate was 33% for staff and 32% for students. Exposure to SH was defined as having experienced at least one of ten defined SH behaviors during their work or studies.

RESULTS

Among women, 24.5% of staff and 26.8% of students reported having been exposed to SH. The corresponding figures were 7.0% and 11.3% for male staff and students and 33.3% and 29.4% for non-binary individuals among staff and students. Unwelcome comments, suggestive looks or gestures, and 'inadvertent' brushing or touching were the three most common forms of reported harassment, both among staff and students. Attempted or completed rape had been experienced by 2.1% of female and 0.6% of male students. Male and female perpetrators were reported by about 80% and 15%, respectively, of exposed participants. Among staff most reported events occurred during the everyday operation of the university, while among students the majority of the events took place during social events linked to student life. When exposed to a perpetrator from the same group (staff or students), women reported more often being in a subordinate power position in relation to the perpetrator.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that sexual harassment is common in the university context, and interventions and case management routines of events should consider power relations between victim and perpetrator, as well as the various contexts within which sexual harassment takes place.

Living in Liquid Times: The Relationships among Job Insecurity, Life Uncertainty, and Psychosocial Well-Being

Stress research has widely documented how uncertainty represents a strong stressor that, in general, is negatively associated with well-being. While the literature on job insecurity about this topic is extensive and exhaustive, empirical research on the outcomes of life uncertainty, namely the perception and feeling of precariousness regarding the present and future of one's own life, is yet to be fully explored. In the present paper, we aimed to investigate the relationships among job insecurity, life uncertainty, and psychosocial well-being outcomes, specifically, with a focus on job satisfaction and burnout. The participants were 357 workers (M = 146 and F = 211), with an average age of 41.78 y.o. (SD = 13.49), who completed an online questionnaire containing, in addition to sociodemographics information, measures of the study variables, namely job insecurity, life uncertainty, job satisfaction, and burnout. The results pointed out negative relationships of both job insecurity and life uncertainty with individual well-being, as they were negatively associated with job satisfaction and positively related to burnout. In a path analysis with latent variables, life uncertainty proved to fully mediate the relationship between job insecurity and psychosocial well-being.

Prevalence of sexual harassment among young Spaniards before, during, and after the COVID-19 lockdown period in Spain

Background

Sexual harassment is a type of coercion, including social pressure, intimidation, physical force, and verbal acts, in addition to other forms such as cyber-harassment, recognized as a major important public health problem.

Methods

This cross-sectional study, based on a survey administered online to men and women aged 18 to 35 years and living in Spain throughout 15th and 28th October 2020, aims to analyze the prevalence and factors associated with sexual harassment among young people in Spain within the last 12 months, particularly according to the COVID-19 lockdown period. It has been conducted by bivariate analysis and robust Poisson regression models. The final sample includes 2.515 participants.

Results

The results indicate that women were almost twice as likely as men to experience sexual harassment (49% vs 22.2%). Also, among heterosexual men and women, the estimated prevalence was lower concerning that observed among bisexuals, gays, and lesbians (31.5% vs 53, 39.2, and 34.6% respectively). The prevalence percentage in the 18–24 age group was twice high as that observed in the 30–35 age group. Finally, during the lockdown period, the harassment through electronic channels increased (32.6% vs 16.5 and 17.8% before and after this period, respectively) and decreased on public roads (22.9% vs 63.4 and 54.4% pre-lockdown and post-lockdown periods, respectively).

Conclusion

These findings highlight that sexual harassment presents a high prevalence among young people, especially cyber-harassment, and workplace harassment and it is important to be aware that young women are more likely to suffer harassment and even more if they do not have a partner or have LGB orientation. During the lockdown sexual harassment has moved from public spaces to the social network.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-022-14264-9.

Sexual Harassment and Mental Health of Female Healthcare Workers in a Tertiary Care Hospital in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Background In this study, we aimed to estimate the prevalence and identify the correlates of sexual harassment among female healthcare workers in a tertiary care hospital in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Methodology A cross-sectional study was conducted among 432 female healthcare workers in both Arabic and English languages. The questionnaire consisted of five sections which included the sociodemographic characteristics, a sexual harassment survey, the Kessler distress scale, social support, and the Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Unadjusted odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals were calculated to identify the significant factors associated with harassment. Results Sexual harassment was reported by 15.5% of the participants, with verbal harassment being the most commonly reported (66%), followed by physical harassment (34%). Around three-fourths of harassment acts took place during the daytime, and 18% of the participants preferred to keep quiet about it. Moderate distress [2.38 (1.17, 4.84)] and severe distress [2.31 (1.09, 4.90)], feeling hopeless [2.86 (1.47, 5.57)] and feeling depressed [3.70 (1.62, 8.48)] were significantly associated with sexual harassment. Low self-esteem items, such as "I don't have good qualities" [4.78 (2.0, 11.43)], "don't have much to be proud of" [2.10 (1.22, 3.63)], "wish that I have more respect for myself" [2.30 (1.36, 3.90)], and "inclined to feel that I am a failure" [2.27 (1.24, 4.16)] were significantly associated with sexual harassment. Conclusions It is important for all employees to know about their rights and report all types of harassment acts. Counseling sexually harassed victims should focus on improving the self-esteem and mental distress of these women. Prevention of harassment against female healthcare workers can improve their mental health as well as their quality of work.

Temporal Dimensions of Job Quality and Gender: Exploring Differences in the Associations of Working Time and Health between Women and Men

Research shows strong links between working time organization and workers’ health outcomes. Working time is also known to be highly gendered, with men and women working to different schedules. This article merges these two strands of research and takes a gender-based approach to investigating the relationship between temporal job quality and self-reported health in Europe. First, the sixth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) is used to establish the relationship between temporal dimensions of job quality and health and well-being outcomes for employed women and men. This is then corroborated using larger samples and more restricted measures of job quality drawn from micro-data from the 2019–2020 EU Labor Force Survey (LFS). The analyses show that good temporal job quality is positively associated with health and subjective well-being for both women and men, but this effect is significantly stronger for women, who are also at a greater risk of exposure to low control over working time and time under-employment. The findings highlight the importance of studying the impact of working and employment conditions on health from gender perspective, and the need for further exploration of job quality due to changes in the spatio-temporal organization of work during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic.

Development and validation of contextual measures of sexual harassment perceptions, experiences, and coping for women employees in Ethiopian hospitality workplaces

Background

Sexual harassment among female employees in the hospitality industry is a complex phenomenon, and it has ramifications for employment, psychological, physical, and reproductive health. Nevertheless, our interpretation is constrained by a lack of agreement on its definition and measurement. As a result, hospitality workplaces require accurate tools that provide a detailed understanding of sexual harassment and inputs for action to limit adverse outcomes. Thus, this study aimed to develop a reliable and valid measure of female hospitality employees’ perceptions, experiences, and coping features concerning sexual harassment.

Methods

Item development, scale development, and scale evaluation were all parts of the design process. Following a round of feedback from the expert group, qualitative results, and a comprehensive literature review on related themes, item pools were created for the first version of the questionnaire. Pre-testing, survey administration, item reduction, and transformation of extracted latent factors of individual items into a unified and measurable construct were also performed. Field testing included five cognitive interviews with women who had experienced sexual harassment, a pre-test study of 30 women, and a survey of 345 women who worked in hospitality workplaces. Finally, tests for dimensionality, reliability, and validity were conducted.

Results

In Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, 345 women working in the hospitality workplaces, with a mean age of 24.31 ± 4.30 years, took part in this study. The robust maximum likelihood estimation approach was used to do confirmatory factor analysis. The model’s stability was determined by calculating the goodness of fit and the factorial invariance. Subsequently, the validity was confirmed. The findings supported the validity and reliability of the questionnaires designed for the target group. Therefore, the questionnaires can be used as research instruments.

Conclusions

The sexual harassment perceptions, experiences and coping scales provide a locally verified method for assessing sexual harassment in Ethiopia by government authorities and local and international non-governmental organisations, which aid in providing necessary services and the evaluation of efforts aimed at improving workplace safety, workplace health, and psychosocial well-being.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13690-022-00828-z.

Associations Between Workplace Violence, Mental Health, and Physical Health among Korean Workers: The Fifth Korean Working Conditions Survey

BACKGROUND

Workplace violence (WPV) is a global public health problem and a threat to the health of Korean workers. This study assessed the prevalence and risk factors of WPV and its association with mental and physical health among Korean workers.

METHODS

Data obtained for 50,205 respondents to the Fifth Korean Working Conditions Survey were utilized for this study. Verbal abuse, threats, physical violence, and sexual harassment were assessed individually and as a composite for "any WPV." Workers were characterized by education, income, shift work status, access to a health and safety education program, work sector and overall health. Descriptive analyses and multiple logistic regression analyses were used to estimate the prevalence of WPV and its association with mental and physical health.

FINDINGS

Overall, 5.6% of workers reported experiencing one of four forms of WPV. The prevalence of verbal abuse, threats, physical violence, and sexual harassment were 4.9%, 0.7%, 0.2%, and 1.1%, respectively. Most perpetrators were customers. Prevalence of WPV was associated with lower education level, poor health status, long working hours, shift work, and no experience of health and safety education; 9.0% of service workers experienced violence. Workers who had experienced WPV were more likely to experience anxiety, sleep-related problems, depressive symptoms, back pain, headache/eye strain, and overall fatigue.

CONCLUSIONS/APPLICATIONS TO PRACTICE

Workplace violence is a serious occupational and public health concern in Korea. These results suggest managing WPV may improve workers' well-being and that violence-prevention strategies, policies, and regulations should be implemented across most industries.

Perception and experiences of sexual harassment among women working in hospitality workplaces of Bahir Dar city, Northwest Ethiopia: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Workplace sexual harassment is a public health problem that depends on gender, context, and perceived ideology. Although studies have documented the prevalence and consequences of workplace sexual harassment worldwide, victims' perceptions and experiences are still poorly understood in low and middle-income countries, particularly Ethiopia. Female workers in the hospitality industry, including hotels, bars, restaurants, fast-food restaurants, and cafeterias, are particularly affected. Hence, this study aimed to explore sexual harassment perceptions and experiences among women working in these workplaces.

METHODS

An exploratory qualitative study was conducted from 1 January to 30 August 2019. Data were collected from female employees and key informants from several hospitality workplaces in Bahir Dar City. Data were collected through focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, and key-informant interviews. Women who experienced sexual harassment were selected using the snowball method, and key informants were recruited purposefully. Six focus group discussions, ten in-depth interviews, and thirteen key informant interviews were conducted. Data were analysed using the ATLAS ti version 8.4.24.

RESULTS

In this study, most participants perceived that sexual harassment is pressuring, threatening, touching, abducting sexual advances, and experiencing verbal, physical, and non-verbal types. Similarly, the perceived risk factors were related to the organisations, the customers, and the victims, with the consequences being work-related, health-related, financial-related, and family-related.

CONCLUSIONS

Workplace sexual harassment in hospitality workplaces is poorly understood, but many women experience it. A variety of factors also caused it, and it influenced both organisations and people. Public awareness programs, pre-service preparation, in-service training, prevention, and psychosocial support are needed. Similarly, policies and strategies for the organisations should be developed and implemented.

The Effect of Job Insecurity and Life Uncertainty on Everyday Consumptions and Broader Life Projects during COVID-19 Pandemic

Contemporary society is characterized by a high level of uncertainty in many domains of everyday life. The COVID-19 pandemic has generated a deep economic crisis, exacerbating worldwide feelings of uncertainty and precarity. Individuals with insecure jobs have (and will) probably suffered the most from this situation. Workers with higher job insecurity have poorer psychological and physical health, display more negative work attitudes and are less satisfied about their life. However, much less is known about the impact of job insecurity and life uncertainty on consumer behavior. Using the Conservation of Resources theory as a framework, the present study examines a model in which job insecurity and life uncertainty would have a negative effect on everyday consumptions and broader life projects of individuals. Data collection was conducted in Italy in June and July 2020 during COVID-19 pandemic, in the immediate aftermath of the national lockdown. In a sample of 830 workers, the results of a mediation analysis showed that job insecurity and life uncertainty had a detrimental impact of consumer behaviors, since they were significantly associated with higher propensity to sacrifice and reduce everyday short-term consumptions (e.g., buying food) and greater perceived unaffordability of broader long-term life projects (e.g., buying a house).

Workplace gender-based violence and associated factors among university women in Enugu, South-East Nigeria: an institutional-based cross-sectional study

Background

Exposure to workplace gender-based violence (GBV) can affect women's mental and physical health and work productivity in higher educational settings. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the prevalence of GBV (workplace incivility, bullying, sexual harassment), and associated factors among Nigerian university women.

Methods

The study was an institutional-based cross-sectional survey. The multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 339 female staff from public and private universities in Enugu, south-east Nigeria. Data was collected using the Workplace Incivility Scale (WIS), Modified Workplace Incivility Scale (MWIS), Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised (NAQ-R), and Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ). Descriptive statistics, independent samples t-test, Pearson’s Chi-square test, univariate ANOVA, bivariate, and multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted at 0.05 level of significance.

Results

The prevalence of workplace incivility, bullying, and sexual harassment (SH) was 63.8%, 53.5%, and 40.5%. The 12-month experience of the supervisor, coworker, and instigated incivilities was 67.4%, 58.8%, and 52.8%, respectively. Also, 47.5% of the participants initiated personal bullying, 62.5% experienced work-related bullying, and 42.2% experienced physical bullying. The 12-month experience of gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion were 36.5%, 25.6%, and 26.6%, respectively. Being aged 35–49 years (AOR 0.15; 95% CI (0.06, 0.40), and ≥ 50 years (AOR 0.04; 95% CI (0.01, 0.14) were associated with workplace incivility among female staff. Having a temporary appointment (AOR 7.79, 95% CI (2.26, 26.91) and casual/contract employment status (AOR 29.93, 95% CI (4.57, 192.2) were reported to be associated with workplace bullying. Having a doctoral degree (AOR 3.57, 95% CI (1.24, 10.34), temporary appointment (AOR 91.26, 95% CI (14.27, 583.4) and casual/contract employment status (AOR 73.81, 95% CI (7.26, 750.78) were associated with workplace SH.

Conclusions

The prevalence of GBV was high. There is an urgent need for workplace interventions to eliminate different forms of GBV and address associated factors to reduce the adverse mental, physical, and social health outcomes among university women.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12905-021-01273-w.

Changes in precarious employment in the United States: A longitudinal analysis

Objective:

This longitudinal study aimed to measure precarious employment in the US using a multidimensional indicator.

Methods:

We used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1988–2016) and the Occupational Information Network database to create a longitudinal precarious employment score (PES) among 7568 employed individuals over 18 waves (N=101 290 observations). We identified 13 survey indicators to operationalize 7 dimensions of precarious employment, which we included in our PES (range: 0–7, with 7 indicating the most precarious): material rewards, working-time arrangements, stability, workers’ rights, collective organization, interpersonal relations, and training. Using generalized estimating equations, we estimated the mean PES and changes over time in the PES overall and by race/ethnicity, gender, education, income, and region.

Results:

On average, the PES was 3.17 [standard deviation (SD) 1.19], and was higher among women (3.34, SD 1.20), people of color (Hispanics: 3.24, SD 1.23; non-Hispanic Blacks: 3.31, SD 1.23), those with less education (primary: 3.99, SD 1.07; high school: 3.43, SD 1.19), and with lower-incomes (3.84, SD 1.08), and those residing in the South (3.23, SD 1.17). From 1988 to 2016, the PES increased by 9% on average [0.29 points; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.26–0.31]. While precarious employment increased over time across all subgroups, the increase was largest among males (0.35 points; 95% CI 0.33–0.39), higher-income (0.39 points; 95% CI 0.36–0.42) and college-educated (0.37 points; 95% CI 0.33–0.41) individuals.

Conclusions:

Long-term decreases in employment quality are widespread in the US. Women and those from racialized and less-educated populations remain disproportionately precariously employed; however, we observed large increases among men, college graduates and higher-income individuals.