From anxiety to action-Experience of threat, emotional states, reactance, and action preferences in the early days of COVID-19 self-isolation in Germany and Austria

Do Italian people still wear masks? Analysis of personality and dispositional correlates of facemask use in post Covid-19 scenario

Face mask wearing is a low-cost preventative measure for the Covid-19 pandemic. In Italy, face masks are no longer mandatory indoors from the 1st of May 2022. Some research focused on factors that influence the choice of using masks, but less is known about mask-wearing when non-mandatory. The present study aims to compare those who were still wearing masks indoors when non-mandatory and those who were not, in personality traits, anxiety, depression, and trust in healthcare professions, in Italy, in 2022. Furthermore, we analyze if resilience, reactance, political orientation, and Covid-19 vaccinations moderate between negative affectivity and the choice of wearing masks. 1151 adults, aged 18-64, were recruited. Using the Qualtrics platform, participants filled in a socio-demographic interview, and self-report questionnaires. Results showed that people who were still wearing a mask indoors had higher levels of psychoticism and negative affectivity, worse mental health, greater trust in healthcare professions, and worries about the pandemic. Moreover, resilience partially moderates the relationship between negative affectivity and the choice of wearing a mask. These findings provide a better understanding of individuals' responses to post-pandemic changes, identifying the personal and contextual aspects that can make people struggle with the process of returning to normality.

Unveiling the influence of the Italian mafia as a Dark Triad threat on individuals' affective states and the power of defense mechanisms

The present research investigated whether the Italian mafia as a Dark Triad threat increased threat-related affective states and explored how thinking about defense mechanisms may help to reduce these states. For this, we conducted a multi-method experimental study with Italians (N = 253). The quantitative results show that the mafia as a threat manipulation increased threat-related affective states in terms of higher behavioral inhibition (BIS) and lower behavioral activation (BAS). The qualitative results further depict proximal and distal defense mechanisms to reduce this threat, which can be categorized into models of threat and defense. Exploratory analyses indicate that naming distal defenses positively affected the increase of BAS. Additionally, when participants had higher levels of BIS after the threat, naming more defenses and proximal defenses positively affected the decrease of BIS. Further qualitative results provide valuable information on effective personal and societal buffers for the perceived threat of the Italian mafia.

Does threat trigger prosociality? The relation between basic individual values, threat appraisals, and prosocial helping intentions during the COVID-19 pandemic

Prosociality is often considered as quintessential in coping with the threats of health emergencies. As previous research has suggested, prosocial behaviors are shaped by both dispositional factors and situational cues about the helping situation. In the present research, we investigated whether "bonding" types of prosociality, helping directed towards close others within one's social network, and "bridging" types of prosociality, helping directed towards vulnerable people across group boundaries, are predicted by basic individual values and threat appraisals concerning COVID-19. During the pandemic, we conducted a cross-sectional study in the US and India (Ntotal = 954), using the Schwartz value inventory and a multifaceted measure of threat assessment to predict prosocial helping intentions. After controlling for other value and threat facets, self-transcendence values and threat for vulnerable groups uniquely predicted both bonding and bridging types of prosociality. Furthermore, threat for vulnerable groups partially mediated the effect of self-transcendence on prosocial helping intentions: People who endorsed self-transcendent values were particularly concerned by the effect of the pandemic on vulnerable groups, and thus willing to engage in prosocial behaviours to help those in need. Our findings support the idea that prosociality is stimulated by empathic concerns towards others in need and underline the importance for future research to consider the broad spectrum of threats appraised by people during health emergencies.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-023-04829-1.

Digital and physical factors influencing an individual's preventive behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan: A perspective based on the S-O-R model

COVID-19 has caused considerable stress to individuals and communities. Daily press briefings on public health during the COVID-19 pandemic have increased individuals' feelings of social pressure. Abrupt changes to a person's immediate environment, such as the changes caused by COVID-19, can substantially affect their mental health and cognitive adjustment. On the basis of the stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) framework, we examined the effects of digital and physical stimuli related to COVID-19 in Taiwan on individuals' psychological states and preventive behavior, including social distancing and personal hygiene. The data obtained from 498 valid survey questionnaires indicated that digital and physical factors including informativeness, social pressure, and severity exerted direct effects on cognitive assimilation and anxiety, which in turn affected individuals' preventive behavior. Moreover, cognitive assimilation and anxiety had significant mediating effects on the relationships of informativeness, social pressure, and severity with individuals' preventive behavior. The results of this study indicate how digital and physical stimulus factors affect cognitive assimilation and anxiety, which influence preventive behavior during a pandemic.

Populist Attitudes Predict Compliance-Related Attitudes and Behaviors During the COVID-19 Pandemic Via Trust in Institutions

Abstract. While previous research discussed populism as a phenomenon of declining trust, we investigated the predictive value of populist attitudes for citizens’ trust, attitudes, and behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, we tested the role of trust in several institutions simultaneously. As preregistered, the cross-sectional ( N = 1,090) and longitudinal ( n = 216) data collected (April to June, 2020) in Germany ( n = 617) and Poland ( n = 473) showed that stronger populist attitudes predicted higher trust in (a) alternative news media but less trust in (b) mainstream news media, (c) political institutions, and (d) scientific institutions. Moreover, we found negative effects of populist attitudes on acceptance and compliance, mediated via trust in political and scientific institutions (but not news media).

A four-level meta-analytic review of the relationship between social media and well-being: a fresh perspective in the context of COVID-19

Social media, one of the most pervasive forms of technology, has been widely studied in relation to the mental health and well-being of individuals. However, the current literature on social media and well-being has provided mixed and inconclusive findings, thus creating a polarizing view of social media. These mixed findings continue to extend into the pandemic, with researchers debating over the effects of social media in the new norms of social isolation. In light of these inconclusive findings, the aim of our meta-analysis was to synthesize previous research data in order to have a holistic understanding of the association between social media and well-being, particularly in the present context of COVID-19. The current meta-analysis systematically investigated 155 effect sizes from 42 samples drawn from 38 studies published during the COVID-19 pandemic (N = 43,387) and examined the potential moderators in the relationship between social media and well-being, such as the different operationalizations of social media usage and demographics. Overall, our study found that the relationship between social media usage and well-being was not significant in the context of COVID-19. Additionally, the impact of various moderators on the relationship between social media and well-being was found to vary. We discuss the various theoretical, methodological and practical implications of these findings and highlight areas where further research is necessary to shed light on the complex and nuanced relationship between social media and well-being.

Unveiling the effects of consumers' psychological distance on their reactance and related behavioral outcomes: Do lockdown restrictions matter?

This study examined consumers' psychological reactance, which is insufficiently explored in the literature. This research fills the gaps found in the literature reviewed and investigates how the psychological reactance of restaurant consumers developed because of social, temporal, and spatial distancing measures during COVID-19. This study also explored ways in which the restaurant industry can increase its compliance with COVID-19 restrictions in such a situation. We explored the effects of social, temporal, and spatial distancing on psychological reactance. We also identified the moderating effect of lockdown restrictions, which strengthen the psychological reactance developed because of (a) social distancing, (b) temporal distancing, and (c) spatial distancing. We collected data from restaurant consumers in Lahore. This study applied quantitative techniques (i.e., a test of normality, measurement model assessment, structural model assessment, and common method variance). The data were analyzed using IBM SPSS 25 and AMOS 24 and the results were interpreted and presented accordingly. This study added to the literature on psychological reactance, service management, and psychological distance. We could also help the restaurant industry overcome the challenges that occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic and the closures. This study could assist the restaurant industry to understand consumer behavior and attract potential consumers.

Widerstände gegen Präventionsmaßnahmen während der COVID-19-Pandemie: Ursachen und Strategien für ihre Minimierung

Hintergrund

Während der COVID-19-Pandemie („coronavirus disease 2019“) kam es immer wieder zu Widerständen gegenüber nachweislich wirksamen Präventionsmaßnahmen. Eine solche durch Verärgerung und negativen Kognitionen gekennzeichnete „Reaktanz“ erleben Menschen (gemäß der psychologischen Reaktanztheorie) bei einer wahrgenommenen Bedrohung subjektiv wichtiger Freiheiten oder wahrgenommenen Versuchen, ihre Einstellungen oder ihr Verhalten zu ändern.

Fragestellung

Der vorliegende Beitrag beleuchtet die Rolle defensiver Prozesse im Kontext der COVID-19-Pandemie aus der Perspektive einer evidenzbasierten und abwehrsensiblen Risiko- und Krisenkommunikation. Nach einem Überblick über wesentliche Auslöser und Ausprägungen werden Möglichkeiten zur Minimierung von Abwehr diskutiert.

Ergebnis

Widerstände sind in einem gewissen Umfang immer zu erwarten, lassen sich aber durch bestimmte formale und inhaltliche Gestaltungen der Informationen minimieren. Hierzu zählen beispielsweise eine professionelle Anmutung, eine respektvoll wertschätzende und stigmasensible Grundhaltung, eine positive und selbstwirksamkeitsstärkende Ansprache sowie eine Vermeidung emotional überfordernder Informationen wie z. B. stark negative emotionale Appelle oder starkes Verlust-Framing.

Schlussfolgerung

Akteure sollten müssen sich darüber im Klaren darüber sein, dass Abwehrmechanismen durch die Kommunikation sowohl gefördert als auch reduziert werden können. Sie sollten wesentliche Auslöser hierfür kennen und durch eine konsistente, verständliche und adressatengerechte Kommunikation dazu beitragen, Unsicherheiten, Widerstände und Irritationen zu vermeiden.

COVID-19 Patients' Life Events, Emotional Health And Post-Illness Awareness: A Qualitative Study

PURPOSE

This study aimed to examine the life events, emotional health and post-illness awareness of COVID-19 patients. We interviewed 25 people who experienced COVID-19.

DESIGN

The study was executed in qualitative descriptive design.

METHODS

The study was conducted with a phenomenological design approach. Data were collected using an in-depth, semi-structured interview method. We interviewed 25 people who experienced COVID-19.

FINDINGS

Three themes were identified in the content analysis: "Experiences before COVID-19," "The active experience of COVID-19," "Remnants of COVID-19." We found that when participants first heard they tested positive for COVID-19, the anxiety they experienced turned into panic and fear of death as the duration and severity of the symptoms of the disease increased. That uncertainty, as well as the influence of the media, intensified their fears. However, despite the unfavorable conditions, experiencing the disease led to positive awareness in all the participants.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed that the intensity of the symptoms of COVID-19, the uncertainty of the treatment process, and the attitude of the media were important factors in producing fear and anxiety. Experiencing the illness created an awareness that resulted in the participants' questioning the meaning of life.

CLINICAL EVIDENCE

Within the scope of preventive health services, there is a need for informative programs of education on COVID-19 prevention, coping, and self-improvement that will be useful in reducing the psychological effects of the disease.

Economic insecurity and compliance to the COVID‐19 restrictions

The present research investigates economic insecurity as one potential determinant of citizens' compliance with restrictive policies implemented to combat the spread of the COVID‐19 virus. Two pre‐registered studies (N_{Study 1} = 305; N_{Study 2} = 175) were conducted in France during the second and the third wave of the pandemic to test correlational (Study 1) and causal (Study 2) links between economic insecurity, perceived constraints, and transgressions (self‐reported, Study 1; intended, Study 2). We hypothesized that the effect of economic insecurity is particularly strong for restrictions involving social affiliations (e.g., not meeting with friends and families). Results indicated that economic insecurity indeed increases perceived constraints and the tendency to transgress but for all types of restrictions (involving social affiliation or not). We propose that economic insecurity poses a threat to individuals' self‐agency, which triggers psychological reactance to any form of restrictions on individual freedom.

Lessons from countries implementing find, test, trace, isolation and support policies in the rapid response of the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To systematically learn lessons from the experiences of countries implementing find, test, trace, isolate, support (FTTIS) in the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.

DESIGN, DATA SOURCES AND ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

We searched MEDLINE (PubMed), Cochrane Library, SCOPUS and JSTOR, initially between 31 May 2019 and 21 January 2021. Research articles and reviews on the use of contact tracing, testing, self-isolation and quarantine for COVID-19 management were included in the review.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

We extracted information including study objective, design, methods, main findings and implications. These were tabulated and a narrative synthesis was undertaken given the diverse research designs, methods and implications.

RESULTS

We identified and included 118 eligible studies. We identified the core elements of an effective find, test, trace, isolate, support (FTTIS) system needed to interrupt the spread of a novel infectious disease, where treatment or vaccination was not yet available, as pertained in the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. We report methods used to shorten case finding time, improve accuracy and efficiency of tests, coordinate stakeholders and actors involved in an FTTIS system, support individuals isolating and make appropriate use of digital tools.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified in our systematic review the key components of an FTTIS system. These include border controls, restricted entry, inbound traveller quarantine and comprehensive case finding; repeated testing to minimise false diagnoses and pooled testing in resource-limited circumstances; extended quarantine period and the use of digital tools for contact tracing and self-isolation. Support for mental or physical health and livelihoods is needed for individuals undergoing self-isolation/quarantine. An integrated system with rolling-wave planning can best use effective FTTIS tools to respond to the fast-changing COVID-19 pandemic. Results of the review may inform countries considering implementing these measures.

Antecedents of Individuals' Concerns Regarding Hospital Hygiene and Surgery Postponement During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Cross-sectional, Web-Based Survey Study

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic poses a major challenge to people's everyday lives. In the context of hospitalization, the pandemic is expected to have a strong influence on affective reactions and preventive behaviors. Research is needed to develop evidence-driven strategies for coping with the challenges of the pandemic. Therefore, this survey study investigates the effects that personality traits, risk-taking behaviors, and anxiety have on medical service-related affective reactions and anticipated behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to identify key factors that are associated with individuals' concerns about hygiene in hospitals and the postponement of surgeries.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional, web-based survey of 929 residents in Germany (women: 792/929, 85.3%; age: mean 35.2 years, SD 12.9 years). Hypotheses were tested by conducting a saturated path analysis.

RESULTS

We found that anxiety had a direct effect on people's concerns about safety (β=-.12, 95% CI -.20 to -.05) and hygiene in hospitals (β=.16, 95% CI .08 to .23). Risk-taking behaviors and personality traits were not associated with concerns about safety and hygiene in hospitals or anticipated behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that distinct interventions and information campaigns are not necessary for individuals with different personality traits or different levels of risk-taking behavior. However, we recommend that health care workers should carefully address anxiety when interacting with patients.

Exploring the landscape of psychological threat: A cartography of threats and threat responses

Over the recent years, research in the field of threat and defense has accumulated evidence on how encounters with various psychological threats influence human behavior, cognition, motivation, affect, and health. Unifying different theoretical threat models, the General Process Model of Threat and Defense claims that different threatening concerns have a similar underlying dynamic. Some years after the publication of this theory, we deem it important to take a comparative look at psychological threat, comparing threats regarding their properties and outcomes on personal and social level. As potential dimensions to describe psychological threats, we discuss the existential nature of concerns, phenomenological worlds involved, and thwarted needs in threat encounters. We also discuss data‐driven approaches to threat classifications, describing first empirical efforts to create threat taxonomies, and suggest directions for future research. This research will enhance our understanding of threat dynamics, and will help us make stronger, more clear‐cut assumptions about human behavior upon experiencing threat.