1
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Yazdani M. Tear film lipid layer and corneal oxygenation: a new function? Eye (Lond) 2023; 37:3534-3541. [PMID: 37138094 PMCID: PMC10686381 DOI: 10.1038/s41433-023-02557-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The classic model of tear film is composed of mucin layer, aqueous layer and the outermost tear film lipid layer (TFLL). The complex mixture of different classes of lipids, mainly secreted by meibomian glands, gives the TFLL unique physicochemical properties. Based on these properties, several functions of TFLL have been found and/or proposed such as the resistance to evaporation and facilitating the formation of a thin film. However, the role of TFLL in the oxygenation of the cornea, a transparent avascular tissue, has never been discussed in the literature. The continuous metabolic activity of the corneal surface and the replenishment of atmospheric gas creates an O2 gradient in the tear film. The molecules of O2 must therefore be transferred from the gas phase to the liquid phase through the TFLL. This process is a function of the diffusion and solubility of the lipid layer as well as interface transfer, which is influenced by alterations in the physical state and lipid composition. In the absence of research on TFLL, the present paper aims to bring the topic into the spotlight for the first time based on existing knowledge on O2 permeability of the lipid membranes and evaporation resistance of the lipid layers. The oxidative stress generated in perturbed lipid layers and the consequent adverse effects are also covered. The function of the TFLL proposed here intends to encourage future research in both basic and clinical sciences, e.g., opening new avenues for the diagnosis and treatment of ocular surface conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mazyar Yazdani
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, 0027, Oslo, Norway.
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2
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Debruyne AC, Okkelman IA, Dmitriev RI. Balance between the cell viability and death in 3D. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 144:55-66. [PMID: 36117019 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Cell death is a phenomenon, frequently perceived as an absolute event for cell, tissue and the organ. However, the rising popularity and complexity of such 3D multicellular 'tissue building blocks' as heterocellular spheroids, organoids, and 'assembloids' prompts to revise the definition and quantification of cell viability and death. It raises several questions on the overall viability of all the cells within 3D volume and on choosing the appropriate, continuous, and non-destructive viability assay enabling for a single-cell analysis. In this review, we look at cell viability and cell death modalities with attention to the intrinsic features of such 3D models as spheroids, organoids, and bioprints. Furthermore, we look at emerging and promising methodologies, which can help define and understand the balance between cell viability and death in dynamic and complex 3D environments. We conclude that the recent innovations in biofabrication, biosensor probe development, and fluorescence microscopy can help answer these questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela C Debruyne
- Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials Group, Department of Human Structure and Repair, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent 9000, Belgium
| | - Irina A Okkelman
- Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials Group, Department of Human Structure and Repair, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent 9000, Belgium
| | - Ruslan I Dmitriev
- Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials Group, Department of Human Structure and Repair, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
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3
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Rederer A, Rose V, Krüger R, Schmittutz L, Swierzy I, Fischer L, Thievessen I, Bauer J, Friedrich O, Schiffer M, Müller-Deile J. Partner, Neighbor, Housekeeper and Dimension: 3D versus 2D Glomerular Co-Cultures Reveal Drawbacks of Currently Used Cell Culture Models. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10384. [PMID: 37373531 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Signaling-pathway analyses and the investigation of gene responses to different stimuli are usually performed in 2D monocultures. However, within the glomerulus, cells grow in 3D and are involved in direct and paracrine interactions with different glomerular cell types. Thus, the results from 2D monoculture experiments must be taken with caution. We cultured glomerular endothelial cells, podocytes and mesangial cells in 2D/3D monocultures and 2D/3D co-cultures and analyzed cell survival, self-assembly, gene expression, cell-cell interaction, and gene pathways using live/dead assay, time-lapse analysis, bulk-RNA sequencing, qPCR, and immunofluorescence staining. Without any need for scaffolds, 3D glomerular co-cultures self-organized into spheroids. Podocyte- and glomerular endothelial cell-specific markers and the extracellular matrix were increased in 3D co-cultures compared to 2D co-cultures. Housekeeping genes must be chosen wisely, as many genes used for the normalization of gene expression were themselves affected in 3D culture conditions. The transport of podocyte-derived VEGFA to glomerular endothelial cells confirmed intercellular crosstalk in the 3D co-culture models. The enhanced expression of genes important for glomerular function in 3D, compared to 2D, questions the reliability of currently used 2D monocultures. Hence, glomerular 3D co-cultures might be more suitable in the study of intercellular communication, disease modelling and drug screening ex vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Rederer
- Department of Nephrology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Victoria Rose
- Department of Nephrology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - René Krüger
- Department of Nephrology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Linda Schmittutz
- Department of Nephrology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Izabela Swierzy
- Department of Nephrology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Lena Fischer
- Center for Medicine, Physics and Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Ingo Thievessen
- Center for Medicine, Physics and Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Julian Bauer
- Institute of Medical Biotechnology, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Oliver Friedrich
- Institute of Medical Biotechnology, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Mario Schiffer
- Department of Nephrology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Janina Müller-Deile
- Department of Nephrology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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4
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Nikolopoulos VK, Augustine R, Camci-Unal G. Harnessing the potential of oxygen-generating materials and their utilization in organ-specific delivery of oxygen. Biomater Sci 2023; 11:1567-1588. [PMID: 36688522 PMCID: PMC10015602 DOI: 10.1039/d2bm01329k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The limited availability of transplantable organs hinders the success of patient treatment through organ transplantation. In addition, there are challenges with immune rejection and the risk of disease transmission when receiving organs from other individuals. Tissue engineering aims to overcome these challenges by generating functional three-dimensional (3D) tissue constructs. When developing tissues or organs of a particular shape, structure, and size as determined by the specific needs of the therapeutic intervention, a tissue specific oxygen supply to all parts of the tissue construct is an utmost requirement. Moreover, the lack of a functional vasculature in engineered tissues decreases cell survival upon implantation in the body. Oxygen-generating materials can alleviate this challenge in engineered tissue constructs by providing oxygen in a sustained and controlled manner. Oxygen-generating materials can be incorporated into 3D scaffolds allowing the cells to receive and utilize oxygen efficiently. In this review, we present an overview of the use of oxygen-generating materials in various tissue engineering applications in an organ specific manner as well as their potential use in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasilios K Nikolopoulos
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, USA.
| | - Robin Augustine
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, USA.
| | - Gulden Camci-Unal
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, USA.
- Department of Surgery, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, USA
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5
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Delgado-Coello B, Navarro-Alvarez N, Mas-Oliva J. The Influence of Interdisciplinary Work towards Advancing Knowledge on Human Liver Physiology. Cells 2022; 11:cells11223696. [PMID: 36429123 PMCID: PMC9688355 DOI: 10.3390/cells11223696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The knowledge accumulated throughout the years about liver regeneration has allowed a better understanding of normal liver physiology, by reconstructing the sequence of steps that this organ follows when it must rebuild itself after being injured. The scientific community has used several interdisciplinary approaches searching to improve liver regeneration and, therefore, human health. Here, we provide a brief history of the milestones that have advanced liver surgery, and review some of the new insights offered by the interdisciplinary work using animals, in vitro models, tissue engineering, or mathematical models to help advance the knowledge on liver regeneration. We also present several of the main approaches currently available aiming at providing liver support and overcoming organ shortage and we conclude with some of the challenges found in clinical practice and the ethical issues that have concomitantly emerged with the use of those approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanca Delgado-Coello
- Department of Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City 04510, Mexico
- Correspondence:
| | - Nalu Navarro-Alvarez
- Department of Gastroenterology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City 14080, Mexico
- Departament of Molecular Biology, Universidad Panamericana School of Medicine, Mexico City 03920, Mexico
- Department of Surgery, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Denver, CO 80045, USA
| | - Jaime Mas-Oliva
- Department of Structural Biology and Biochemistry, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City 04510, Mexico
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6
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Hardman D, Nguyen ML, Descroix S, Bernabeu MO. Mathematical modelling of oxygen transport in a muscle-on-chip device. Interface Focus 2022; 12:20220020. [PMID: 35996738 PMCID: PMC9372644 DOI: 10.1098/rsfs.2022.0020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscle-on-chip devices aim to recapitulate the physiological characteristics of in vivo muscle tissue and so maintaining levels of oxygen transported to cells is essential for cell survival and for providing the normoxic conditions experienced in vivo. We use finite-element method numerical modelling to describe oxygen transport and reaction in a proposed three-dimensional muscle-on-chip bioreactor with embedded channels for muscle cells and growth medium. We determine the feasibility of ensuring adequate oxygen for muscle cell survival in a device sealed from external oxygen sources and perfused via medium channels. We investigate the effects of varying elements of the bioreactor design on oxygen transport to optimize muscle tissue yield and maintain normoxic conditions. Successful co-culturing of muscle cells with motor neurons can boost muscle tissue function and so we estimate the maximum density of seeded neurons supported by oxygen concentrations within the bioreactor. We show that an enclosed bioreactor can provide sufficient oxygen for muscle cell survival and growth. We define a more efficient arrangement of muscle and perfusion chambers that can sustain a predicted 50% increase in maximum muscle volume per perfusion vessel. A study of simulated bioreactors provides functions for predicting bioreactor designs with normoxic conditions for any size of perfusion vessel, muscle chamber and distance between chambers.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Hardman
- Centre for Medical Informatics, Usher Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9BT, UK
| | - Manh-Louis Nguyen
- Institut Curie, Laboratoire Physico Chimie Curie, Institut Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, CNRS UMR168, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Stéphanie Descroix
- Institut Curie, Laboratoire Physico Chimie Curie, Institut Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, CNRS UMR168, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Miguel O. Bernabeu
- Centre for Medical Informatics, Usher Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9BT, UK
- The Bayes Centre, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9BT, UK
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7
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Meseguer-Ripolles J, Lucendo-Villarin B, Tucker C, Ferreira-Gonzalez S, Homer N, Wang Y, Starkey Lewis PJ, M Toledo E, Mellado-Gomez E, Simpson J, Flint O, Jaiswal H, Beer NL, Karlsen AE, Forbes SJ, Dear JW, Hughes J, Hay DC. Dimethyl fumarate reduces hepatocyte senescence following paracetamol exposure. iScience 2021; 24:102552. [PMID: 34151225 PMCID: PMC8188562 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver disease is a major cause of premature death. Oxidative stress in the liver represents a key disease driver. Compounds, such as dimethyl fumarate (DMF), can activate the antioxidant response and are used clinically to treat disease. In this study, we tested the protective properties of DMF before or after paracetamol exposure. Following DMF administration, Nrf2 nuclear translocation was tracked at the single-cell level and target gene transactivation confirmed. Next, the protective properties of DMF were examined following paracetamol exposure. Transcriptomic and biochemical analysis revealed that DMF rescue was underpinned by reduced Nf-kB and TGF-β signaling and cell senescence. Following on from these studies, we employed a Zebrafish model to study paracetamol exposure in vivo. We combined a genetically modified Zebrafish model, expressing green fluorescent protein exclusively in the liver, with automated microscopy. Pre-treatment with DMF, prior to paracetamol exposure, led to reduced liver damage in Zebrafish demonstrating protective properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Meseguer-Ripolles
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Baltasar Lucendo-Villarin
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Carl Tucker
- Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Sofia Ferreira-Gonzalez
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Natalie Homer
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Drive, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Yu Wang
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Philip J. Starkey Lewis
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Enrique M Toledo
- Novo Nordisk Research Centre Oxford (NNRCO), Novo Nordisk Ltd, Innovation Building - Old Road Campus Roosevelt Drive, OX3 7FZ Oxford, UK
- Novo Nordisk Ltd, Novo Nordisk Park 1, 2760 Måløv, Denmark
| | - Esther Mellado-Gomez
- Novo Nordisk Research Centre Oxford (NNRCO), Novo Nordisk Ltd, Innovation Building - Old Road Campus Roosevelt Drive, OX3 7FZ Oxford, UK
- Novo Nordisk Ltd, Novo Nordisk Park 1, 2760 Måløv, Denmark
| | - Joanna Simpson
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Drive, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Oliver Flint
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Himjyot Jaiswal
- Novo Nordisk Research Centre Oxford (NNRCO), Novo Nordisk Ltd, Innovation Building - Old Road Campus Roosevelt Drive, OX3 7FZ Oxford, UK
- Novo Nordisk Ltd, Novo Nordisk Park 1, 2760 Måløv, Denmark
| | - Nicola L. Beer
- Novo Nordisk Research Centre Oxford (NNRCO), Novo Nordisk Ltd, Innovation Building - Old Road Campus Roosevelt Drive, OX3 7FZ Oxford, UK
- Novo Nordisk Ltd, Novo Nordisk Park 1, 2760 Måløv, Denmark
| | - Allan E. Karlsen
- Novo Nordisk Research Centre Oxford (NNRCO), Novo Nordisk Ltd, Innovation Building - Old Road Campus Roosevelt Drive, OX3 7FZ Oxford, UK
- Novo Nordisk Ltd, Novo Nordisk Park 1, 2760 Måløv, Denmark
| | - Stuart J. Forbes
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - James W. Dear
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Drive, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Jeremy Hughes
- Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - David C. Hay
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
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8
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Sinton MC, Meseguer-Ripolles J, Lucendo-Villarin B, Drake AJ, Hay DC. Modeling human hepatic steatosis in pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatocytes. STAR Protoc 2021; 2:100493. [PMID: 33997813 PMCID: PMC8091923 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2021.100493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
This protocol describes the production of hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) from human pluripotent stem cells and how to induce hepatic steatosis, a condition characterized by intracellular lipid accumulation. Following differentiation to an HLC phenotype, intracellular lipid accumulation is induced with a steatosis induction cocktail, allowing the user to examine the cellular processes that underpin hepatic steatosis. Furthermore, the renewable nature of our system, on a defined genetic background, permits in-depth mechanistic analysis, which may facilitate therapeutic target identification in the future. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Sinton et al. (2021).
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew C. Sinton
- University/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Jose Meseguer-Ripolles
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 5 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Baltasar Lucendo-Villarin
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 5 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Amanda J. Drake
- University/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - David C. Hay
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 5 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
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9
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Meseguer-Ripolles J, Kasarinaite A, Lucendo-Villarin B, Hay DC. Protocol for automated production of human stem cell derived liver spheres. STAR Protoc 2021; 2:100502. [PMID: 33997816 PMCID: PMC8105683 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2021.100502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This protocol describes how to produce human liver spheres from pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatic progenitors, endothelial cells, and hepatic stellate cells. Liver spheres form by self-assembly in microwells, generating up to 73 spheres per well of a 96-well plate. This process was automated using liquid handling and pipetting systems, permitting cost-effective scale-up and reducing sphere variability. In its current form, this system provides a powerful tool to generate human liver tissue for disease modeling and drug screening. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Lucendo-Villarin et al. (2020) (https://doi.org/10.1088/1758-5090/abbdb2). Protocol to produce and self-assemble hepatocytes, endothelial, and stellate cells Generation of an automated system for 3D liver sphere production Scalable production of phenotypically stable liver spheres for disease modeling
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Meseguer-Ripolles
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Alvile Kasarinaite
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Baltasar Lucendo-Villarin
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - David C Hay
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
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