1
|
Mohanka M, Banga A. Alterations in Pulmonary Physiology with Lung Transplantation. Compr Physiol 2023; 13:4269-4293. [PMID: 36715279 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c220008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Lung transplant is a treatment option for patients with end-stage lung diseases; however, survival outcomes continue to be inferior when compared to other solid organs. We review the several anatomic and physiologic changes that result from lung transplantation surgery, and their role in the pathophysiology of common complications encountered by lung recipients. The loss of bronchial circulation into the allograft after transplant surgery results in ischemia-related changes in the bronchial artery territory of the allograft. We discuss the role of bronchopulmonary anastomosis in blood circulation in the allograft posttransplant. We review commonly encountered complications related to loss of bronchial circulation such as allograft airway ischemia, necrosis, anastomotic dehiscence, mucociliary dysfunction, and bronchial stenosis. Loss of dual circulation to the lung also increases the risk of pulmonary infarction with acute pulmonary embolism. The loss of lymphatic drainage during transplant surgery also impairs the management of allograft interstitial fluid, resulting in pulmonary edema and early pleural effusion. We discuss the role of lymphatic drainage in primary graft dysfunction. Besides, we review the association of late posttransplant pleural effusion with complications such as acute rejection. We then review the impact of loss of afferent and efferent innervation from the allograft on control of breathing, as well as lung protective reflexes. We conclude with discussion about pulmonary function testing, allograft monitoring with spirometry, and classification of chronic lung allograft dysfunction phenotypes based on total lung capacity measurements. We also review factors limiting physical exercise capacity after lung transplantation, especially impairment of muscle metabolism. © 2023 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 13:4269-4293, 2023.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manish Mohanka
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Amit Banga
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Loor G, Mattar A, Schaheen L, Bremner RM. Surgical Complications of Lung Transplantation. Thorac Surg Clin 2022; 32:197-209. [PMID: 35512938 DOI: 10.1016/j.thorsurg.2022.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Lung transplantation is a life-saving intervention and the most effective therapy for select patients with irreversible lung disease. Despite the effectiveness of lung transplantation, it is a major operation with several opportunities for complications. For example, recipient and donor factors, technical issues, early postoperative events, and immunology can all contribute to potential complications. This article highlights some of the key surgery-related complications that can undermine a successful lung transplantation. The authors offer their expert opinion and experience to help practitioners avoid such complications and recognize and treat them early should they occur.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Loor
- Department of Surgery and Baylor Lung Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, MS: BCM390, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Division of Cardiothoracic Transplantation and Circulatory Support, Texas Heart Institute, 6720 Bertner Avenue Suite C355K, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Aladdein Mattar
- Department of Surgery and Baylor Lung Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, MS: BCM390, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Lara Schaheen
- Norton Thoracic Institute, St. Joseph's Medical Center, 500 W Thomas Rd Ste 500, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA; Creighton University School of Medicine-Phoenix Regional Campus, 350 W. Thomas Rd, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA
| | - Ross M Bremner
- Norton Thoracic Institute, St. Joseph's Medical Center, 500 W Thomas Rd Ste 500, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA; Creighton University School of Medicine-Phoenix Regional Campus, 350 W. Thomas Rd, Phoenix, AZ 85013, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Mohseni MM, Li Z, Simon LV. Emergency Department Visits Among Lung Transplant Patients: A 4-Year Experience. J Emerg Med 2020; 60:150-157. [PMID: 33158689 DOI: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Emergency department (ED) visits by lung transplant (LT) patients have not been well documented in the literature. OBJECTIVES To analyze outcomes among LT recipients with ED visits, to better inform clinicians regarding evaluation and treatment. METHODS This was a retrospective cohort study of LT patients at our ED (2015-2018). Demographics, transplant indication, laboratory studies, ED interventions, disposition, death, and revisit data were collected. Logistic regression models were used to identify univariable and multivariable predictors of ED revisit, intensive care unit (ICU) admission, or death. RESULTS For 505 ED visits among 160 LT recipients, respiratory-related concerns were most frequent (n = 152, 30.1%). Infection was the most common ED diagnosis (n = 101, 20.0%). Many patients were sent home from the ED (n = 235, 46.5%), and 31.3% (n = 158) returned to the ED within 30 days. Fourteen patients (2.8%) needed advanced airway measures. One patient died in the ED, and 18 died in the hospital. On multivariable analysis, more previous ED visits significantly increased the probability of 30-day ED revisit. Heart rate faster than 100 beats/min and systolic blood pressure < 90 mm Hg were significantly associated with ICU admission or death. CONCLUSION Infection should be prominent on the differential diagnosis for LT patients in the ED. A large proportion of patients were discharged from the ED, but a higher number of previous ED visits was most predictive of ED revisit within 30 days. Mortality rate was low in our study, but higher heart rate and lower systolic blood pressure were associated with ICU admission or death.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael M Mohseni
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - Zhuo Li
- Biostatistics Unit, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - Leslie V Simon
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Parulekar AD, Kao CC. Detection, classification, and management of rejection after lung transplantation. J Thorac Dis 2019; 11:S1732-S1739. [PMID: 31632750 DOI: 10.21037/jtd.2019.03.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Rejection is a major complication following lung transplantation. Acute cellular rejection, lymphocytic bronchiolitis, and antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) are all risk factors for the subsequent development of chronic lung allograft dysfunction (CLAD). Acute cellular rejection and lymphocytic bronchiolitis have well defined histopathologic diagnostic criteria and grading. Diagnosis of AMR requires a multidisciplinary approach. CLAD is the major barrier to long-term survival following lung transplantation. The most common phenotype of CLAD is bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS) which is defined by a persistent obstructive decline in lung function. Restrictive allograft dysfunction (RAS) is a second phenotype of CLAD and is associated with a worse prognosis. This article will review the diagnosis, staging, clinical presentation, and treatment of acute rejection, AMR, and CLAD following lung transplantation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amit D Parulekar
- Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep, Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Christina C Kao
- Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep, Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Sher Y, Maldonado JR. Medical Course and Complications After Lung Transplantation. PSYCHOSOCIAL CARE OF END-STAGE ORGAN DISEASE AND TRANSPLANT PATIENTS 2018. [PMCID: PMC7122723 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-94914-7_26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Lung transplant prolongs life and improves quality of life in patients with end-stage lung disease. However, survival of lung transplant recipients is shorter compared to patients with other solid organ transplants, due to many unique features of the lung allograft. Patients can develop a multitude of noninfectious (e.g., primary graft dysfunction, pulmonary embolism, rejection, acute and chronic, renal insufficiency, malignancies) and infectious (i.e., bacterial, fungal, and viral) complications and require complex multidisciplinary care. This chapter discusses medical course and complications that patients might experience after lung transplantation.
Collapse
|
6
|
Long B, Koyfman A. The emergency medicine approach to transplant complications. Am J Emerg Med 2016; 34:2200-2208. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajem.2016.08.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/20/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
|
7
|
Villena Garrido V, Cases Viedma E, Fernández Villar A, de Pablo Gafas A, Pérez Rodríguez E, Porcel Pérez JM, Rodríguez Panadero F, Ruiz Martínez C, Salvatierra Velázquez Á, Valdés Cuadrado L. Recommendations of Diagnosis and Treatment of Pleural Effusion. Update. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arbr.2014.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
|
8
|
Villena Garrido V, Cases Viedma E, Fernández Villar A, de Pablo Gafas A, Pérez Rodríguez E, Porcel Pérez JM, Rodríguez Panadero F, Ruiz Martínez C, Salvatierra Velázquez A, Valdés Cuadrado L. Recommendations of diagnosis and treatment of pleural effusion. Update. Arch Bronconeumol 2014; 50:235-49. [PMID: 24698396 DOI: 10.1016/j.arbres.2014.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Although during the last few years there have been several important changes in the diagnostic or therapeutic methods, pleural effusion is still one of the diseases that the respiratory specialist have to evaluate frequently. The aim of this paper is to update the knowledge about pleural effusions, rather than to review the causes of pleural diseases exhaustively. These recommendations have a longer extension for the subjects with a direct clinical usefulness, but a slight update of other pleural diseases has been also included. Among the main scientific advantages are included the thoracic ultrasonography, the intrapleural fibrinolytics, the pleurodesis agents, or the new pleural drainages techniques.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Villena Garrido
- Servicio de Neumología, Fundación Investigación, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, CIBERES, Madrid, España.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Luis Valdés Cuadrado
- Servicio de Neumología, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago, Santiago de Compostela, España
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Dumonceaux M, Knoop C, Rondelet B, Estenne M. Complications de la transplantation pulmonaire : complications péri-opératoires, rejet aigu et chronique. Rev Mal Respir 2009; 26:639-53. [DOI: 10.1016/s0761-8425(09)74694-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
10
|
Abstract
Despite the recent introduction of many improved immunosuppressive agents for use in transplantation, acute rejection affects up to 55% of lung transplant recipients within the first year after transplant. Acute lung allograft rejection is defined as perivascular or peribronchiolar mononuclear inflammation. Although histopathologic signs of rejection often resolve with treatment, the frequency and severity of acute rejections represent the most important risk factor for the subsequent development of bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS), a condition of progressive airflow obstruction that limits survival to only 50% at 5 years after lung transplantation. Recent evidence demonstrates that peribronchiolar mononuclear inflammation (also known as lymphocytic bronchiolitis) or even a single episode of minimal perivascular inflammation significantly increase the risk for BOS. We comprehensively review the clinical presentation, diagnosis, histopathologic features, and mechanisms of acute cellular lung rejection. In addition, we consider emerging evidence that humoral rejection occurs in lung transplantation, characterized by local complement activation or the presence of antibody to donor human leukocyte antigens (HLA). We discuss in detail methods for HLA antibody detection as well as the clinical relevance, the mechanisms, and the pathologic hallmarks of humoral injury. Treatment options for cellular rejection include high-dose methylprednisolone, antithymocyte globulin, or alemtuzumab. Treatment options for humoral rejection include intravenous immunoglobulin, plasmapheresis, or rituximab. A greater mechanistic understanding of cellular and humoral forms of rejection and their role in the pathogenesis of BOS is critical in developing therapies that extend long-term survival after lung transplantation.
Collapse
|
11
|
Lung. PATHOLOGY OF SOLID ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION 2009. [PMCID: PMC7120462 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-79343-4_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Experiments with animals in the 1940 and 1950s demonstrated that lung transplantation was technically possible [33]. In 1963, Dr. James Hardy performed the first human lung transplantation. The recipient survived 18 days, ultimately succumbing to renal failure and malnutrition [58]. From 1963 through 1978, multiple attempts at lung transplantation failed because of rejection and complications at the bronchial anastomosis. In the 1980s, improvements in immunosuppression, especially the introduction of cyclosporin A, and enhanced surgical techniques led to renewed interest in organ transplantation. In 1981, a 45-year-old-woman received the first successful heart–lung transplantation for idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) [106]. She survived 5 years after the procedure. Two years later the first successful single lung transplantation for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) [128] was reported, and in 1986 the first double lung transplantation for emphysema [25] was performed.
Collapse
|
12
|
Wahidi MM, Willner DA, Snyder LD, Hardison JL, Chia JY, Palmer SM. Diagnosis and outcome of early pleural space infection following lung transplantation. Chest 2008; 135:484-491. [PMID: 19017896 DOI: 10.1378/chest.08-1339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite the frequent occurrence of pleural effusions in lung transplant recipients, little is known about early posttransplant pleural space infections. We sought to determine the predictors and clinical significance of pleural infection in this population. METHODS We analyzed 455 consecutive lung transplant recipients and identified patients who had undergone sampling of pleural fluid within 90 days posttransplant. A case-control analysis was performed to determine the characteristics that predict infection and the impact of infection on posttransplant survival. RESULTS Pleural effusions undergoing drainage occurred in 27% of recipients (124 of 455 recipients). Ninety-six percent of effusions were exudative. Pleural space infection occurred in 27% of patients (34 of 124 patients) with effusions. The incidence of infection did not differ significantly by native lung disease or type of transplant operation. Fungal pathogens accounted for > 60% of the infections; Candida albicans was the predominant organism found. Bacterial etiologies were present in 25% of cases. Infected pleural effusions had elevated lactate dehydrogenase levels (p = 0.036) and markedly increased neutrophil levels in the pleural space (p < 0.0001) compared to noninfected effusions. A pleural neutrophil percentage of > 21% provides a sensitivity of 70% and a specificity of 79% for correctly identifying an infection. Patients with pleural space infection had a diminished 1-year survival rate compared to those without infection (67% vs 87%, respectively; p = 0.002). CONCLUSION Pleural infection with fungal or bacterial pathogens commonly complicates lung transplantation, and an elevated neutrophil level in the pleural fluid is the most sensitive and specific indicator of infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Momen M Wahidi
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
| | - Daniel A Willner
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
| | - Laurie D Snyder
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
| | - Jeremy L Hardison
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
| | - Jessica Y Chia
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
| | - Scott M Palmer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
|
14
|
Villena Garrido V, Ferrer Sancho J, Hernández Blasco L, de Pablo Gafas A, Pérez Rodríguez E, Rodríguez Panadero F, Romero Candeira S, Salvatierra Velázquez A, Valdés Cuadrado L. [Diagnosis and treatment of pleural effusion]. Arch Bronconeumol 2007. [PMID: 16945266 DOI: 10.1157/13090586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
|
15
|
Villena Garrido V, Ferrer Sancho J, Hernández Blasco L, de Pablo Gafas A, Pérez Rodríguez E, Rodríguez Panadero F, Romero Candeira S, Salvatierra Velázquez A, Valdés Cuadrado L. [Diagnosis and treatment of pleural effusion]. Arch Bronconeumol 2007; 42:349-72. [PMID: 16945266 DOI: 10.1016/s1579-2129(06)60545-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
16
|
Abstract
This article reviews several important noninfectious pulmonary complications that threaten survival, pulmonary function, and quality of life after lung transplantation. Topics reviewed include primary graft dysfunction (PGD), native lung hyperinflation, anastomotic complications, phrenic nerve injury, pleural complications, lung cancer, pulmonary toxicity associated with immunosuppressive medications, and exercise limitation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vivek N Ahya
- Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Division, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Shitrit D, Izbicki G, Fink G, Bendayan D, Aravot D, Saute M, Kramer MR. Late postoperative pleural effusion following lung transplantation: characteristics and clinical implications. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2003; 23:494-6. [PMID: 12694766 DOI: 10.1016/s1010-7940(03)00020-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Pleural effusions are extremely common in the early postoperative period after lung transplantation (LTX). It occurs in all transplant recipients, and like pleural fluid following other cardiothoracic surgery is bloody, exudative and neutrophil predominant. There was no information, however, on the characteristics of the late (14-45 days) postoperative pleural fluid after LTX. The purpose of this study was to describe the characteristics and the clinical implications of late postoperative pleural effusion after LTX. METHODS Thirty-five patients underwent TX between May 1997 and May 2001. Seven patients (20%) developed late postoperative pleural effusion. Thoracentesis were performed in these patients and the white blood cell counts, cell differential as well as biochemical parameters were determined. RESULTS The median time for late pleural effusion appearance was 23 days (range, 14-34 days) after TX. The pleural effusions were medium in size (700 ml, range, 100-1300), exudative in all the patients and had lymphocyte predominance. No evidence of fluid recurrence or clinical deterioration was noted in these patients. CONCLUSION Late-onset exudative lymphocytic pleural effusion after LTX is not uncommon. When there is no evidence of rejection or infection, it usually has a benign, favorable outcome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Shitrit
- Pulmonary Institute, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Campus, and Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Petah Tiqva, Israel.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
|
19
|
Abstract
Three cases of pulmonary sarcoidosis presented as bullous emphysema with severe airflow obstruction, and the diagnosis of sarcoidosis was unsuspected for at least 2 years. Potential mechanisms of bullous emphysema from sarcoidosis are discussed. The physician should suspect sarcoidosis as the cause of bullous emphysema when young patients who have smoked relatively few pack-years present with emphysema or severe airflow obstruction. Additional clues are the presence of mediastinal adenopathy on a chest radiograph or a CT scan and a history consistent with extrapulmonary sarcoidosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M A Judson
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston 29425, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|