Esophageal contribution to chest pain in patients with coronary artery disease

Chinese expert consensus on diagnosis and management of gastroesophageal reflux disease in the elderly (2023)

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) in the elderly is characterized by atypical symptoms, relatively severe esophageal injury, and more complications, and when GERD is treated, it is also necessary to fully consider the general health condition of the elderly patients. This consensus summarized the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis and treatment characteristics of GERD in the elderly, and provided relevant recommendations, providing guidance for medical personnel to correctly understand and standardize the diagnosis and treatment of GERD in the elderly.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease increases the risk of essential hypertension: results from the Nationwide Readmission Database and Mendelian randomization analysis

BACKGROUND

The link between gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and essential hypertension (EH) and its causal nature remains controversial. Our study examined the connection between GERD and the risk of hypertension and assessed further whether this correlation has a causal relationship.

METHODS

First, we utilized the National Readmission Database including 14 422 183 participants to conduct an observational study. Dividing the population into GERD and non-GERD groups, we investigated the correlation between GERD and EH using multivariate logistic regression. Next, bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization was adopted. The summary statistics for GERD were obtained from a published genome-wide association study including 78 707 cases and 288 734 controls. We collected summary statistics for hypertension containing 70 651 cases and 223 663 controls from the FinnGen consortium. We assessed causality primarily by the inverse-variance weighted method with validation by four other Mendelian randomization approaches as well as an array of sensitivity analyses.

RESULTS

In the unadjusted model, GERD patients had a higher risk of EH than the non-GERD group, regardless of gender (odds ratio, 1.43; 95% confidence interval: 1.42-1.43; P < .001). Further adjusting for critical confounders did not change this association. For Mendelian randomization, we found that genetically predicted GERD was causally linked to an enhanced risk of EH in inverse-variance weighted technique (odds ratio, 1.52; 95% confidence interval: 1.39-1.67; P = 3.51 × 10-18); conversely, EH did not raise the risk of GERD causally.

CONCLUSIONS

GERD is a causal risk factor for EH. Further research is required to probe the mechanism underlying this causal connection.

Improved control of hypertension following laparoscopic fundoplication for gastroesophageal reflux disease

This study aims to determine whether successful laparoscopic fundoplication for gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) can improve the control of hypertension. We conducted an observational study of GERD patients with hypertension. The esophageal and gastroesophageal symptoms of these patients were successfully treated with laparoscopic fundoplication, as measured by the reduced GERD symptoms and proton pump inhibitor consumption. A hypertension control scale was used to classify the use of antihypertensive medications and the quality of blood pressure control before and after anti-reflux surgery.Wilcoxon signed-ranks test was used for the statistical analyses. Seventy GERD patients were included in the analysis and followed up for a mean period of 3.5 ± 1.4 years. Prior to surgery, all participating patients were taking at least one class of antihypertensive medication, and 56 patients (80%) had intermittently high blood pressure. After surgery, the mean number of antihypertensive medication classes per patient was significantly reduced from 1.61 ± 0.77 pre-procedure to 1.27 ± 0.88 post-procedure (P < 0.001). The blood pressure of 48 of the 56 cases (86%) with preoperative intermittent high blood pressure returned to normal post procedure. A total of 50 patients (71%) recorded improvements on the hypertension control scale, with the overall mean score decreasing from 3.1 ± 1.0 preprocedure to 1.4 ± 1.0 post-procedure (P < 0.001). Therefore, successful laparoscopic fundoplication may result in better blood pressure control in some hypertensive GERD patients. This result suggests a possible connection between gastroesophageal reflux and hypertension.

Association between gastroesophageal reflux disease and coronary heart disease: A nationwide population-based analysis

In this study, we aimed to determine the association between gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and subsequent coronary heart disease (CHD) development, if any, and to evaluate whether longer use of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) increases the risk of CHD.Patients diagnosed with GERD between 2000 and 2011 were identified as the study cohort (n = 12,960). Patients without GERD were randomly selected from the general population, frequency-matched with the study group according to age, sex, and index year, and evaluated as the comparison cohort (n = 51,840). Both cohorts were followed up until the end of 2011 to determine the incidence of CHD. The risk of CHD was evaluated in both groups by using Cox proportional hazards regression models.The GERD patients had a greater probability of CHD than the cohort without GERD did (log-rank test, P < 0.001 and 11.8 vs 6.5 per 1000 person-years). The GERD cohort had a higher risk of CHD than the comparison cohort did after adjustment for age, sex, hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, alcohol-related illness, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, biliary stone, anxiety, depression, chronic kidney disease, and cirrhosis (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR]: 1.49, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.34-1.66). The risk of CHD was greater for the patients treated with PPIs for more than 1 year (aHR = 1.67, 95% CI = 1.34-2.08) than for those treated with PPIs for <1 year (aHR = 1.56, 95% CI = 1.39-1.74).Our population-based cohort study results indicate that GERD was associated with an increased risk of developing CHD, and that PPI use for more than 1 year might increase the risk of CHD.

Value of the Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Questionnaire (GerdQ) in predicting the proton pump inhibitor response in coronary artery disease patients with gastroesophageal reflux-related chest pain

Chest pain experienced by patients with coronary artery disease can be partly due to gastroesophageal reflux-induced chest pain (GERP). Empirical proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy has been recommended as an initial clinical approach for treating GERP. However, PPI use may lead to some health problems. The Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Questionnaire (GerdQ) may represent a noninvasive and cost-effective approach for avoiding PPI misuse and for identifying the appropriate patients for the PPI trial test. The aim of this pilot study was to prospectively evaluate the association between GerdQ scores and PPI response in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) and GERP to determine whether the GerdQ predicts the PPI response in patients with CAD and GERP and to further validate the clinical application value of the GerdQ. A total of 154 consecutive patients with potential GERP were recruited to complete a GerdQ with subsequent PPI therapy. Based on the PPI trial result, patients were divided into a PPI-positive response group and a PPI-negative response group. The difference in the GerdQ scores between the two groups was assessed. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve of GerdQ score was drawn according to the PPI response as the gold standard. The ability of GerdQ to predict the PPI response was assessed. A total of 96 patients completed the entire study; 62 patients (64.6%) were assigned to the PPI-positive response group, and 34 patients (35.4%) to the PPI-negative response group. The GerdQ score of the PPI-positive response group (8.11 ± 3.315) was significantly higher than that of the PPI-negative response group (4.41 ± 2.743), and the difference was statistically significant (t = 5.863, P = 0.000). The ROC curve was drawn according to a PPI response assessment result with a score above 2 as the gold standard. The area under curve was 0.806. When the critical value of GerdQ score was 7.5, Youden index was up to 0.514, the diagnostic sensitivity was 0.661, and the diagnostic specificity was 0.853. A GerdQ score greater than 7.5 better predicts the response to the PPI trial therapy. There is a strong association between the GerdQ score and the response to PPI therapy. Higher GerdQ scores were predictive of a positive PPI response in CAD patients with GERP. The GerdQ may be a reasonable screening tool for GERP in patients with CAD who are prepared to accept PPI therapy.

Acid reflux in patients with coronary artery disease and refractory chest pain

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the influence of acid reflux on chest pain and ischemic events and the effects of cardiac drugs on acid reflux in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) and refractory chest pain.

METHODS

Simultaneous 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring and 24-hour continuous electrocardiogram (ECG) (Holter) results were obtained for 64 patients. Ischemic events and cardiac drug prescriptions were compared between the patients with and without gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Patients fulfilling the GERD criteria received 14-day therapy with omeprazole at a dose of 20 mg bid. The results of the 24-hour pH monitoring, Holter and the SF-36 questionnaire were compared before treatment and again after two weeks of therapy.

RESULTS

GERD was identified in 38 (69%) patients, with 49% of all chest pain occurring in association with acid reflux. A higher incidence (p=0.033) and longer duration (p=0.040) of ischemic events were observed in the GERD (+) patients. More frequent combined use of cardiac drugs was found in the GERD (+) patients. However, fewer ischemic events and greater total SF-36 survey scores were noted after PPI therapy in the GERD (+) patients.

CONCLUSION

Acid reflux is common in patients with CAD and refractory chest pain. Refractory chest pain in patients with CAD can be partially noncardiac chest pain (NCCP) secondary to acid reflux. The combined use of common cardiac drugs may predispose or aggravate GERD. Short-term proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy not only restores a normal esophageal pH, but also significantly improves the general health-related quality of life (HRQL) of patients.

Clinical trial: chest pain caused by presumed gastro-oesophageal reflux in coronary artery disease - controlled study of lansoprazole vs. placebo

BACKGROUND

Gastro-oesophageal reflux (GER) and coronary artery disease commonly co-exist. Coronary artery disease patients may mistake GER-induced pain for cardiac pain or GER might provoke angina.

AIM

To investigate if GER might contribute to nocturnal/rest chest pain among coronary artery disease patients.

METHODS

Double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study investigating effect of lansoprazole on chest pain; 125 patients with angiographically proven coronary artery disease enrolled with at least one weekly episode of nocturnal/rest pain, randomized to lansoprazole 30 mg daily or placebo with crossover after 4 weeks. Symptoms recorded and QOL assessed by Nottingham Health Profile Questionnaire; ST segment depression episodes counted from 24 h electrocardiographic monitoring in final week of both periods.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

ANCOVA with period and carryover analysis.

RESULTS

In all, 108 patients completed the study. There was a modest increase in pain-free days on lansoprazole vs. placebo (P < 0.02), with fewer days with pain at rest (P < 0.05) and at night (P < 0.009) on lansoprazole vs. placebo, but no significant differences in ST segment depression episodes (P = 0.64). There was a trend for reduction in the 'physical pain' QOL domain.

CONCLUSIONS

Among coronary artery disease patients, lansoprazole modestly increases pain-free days and reduces rest/nocturnal pain. As lansoprazole did not affect ST segments, this may be by suppression of GER-provoked pain misinterpreted as angina, rather than acid-provoked ischaemia.

High prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux in patients with clinical unstable angina and known coronary artery disease

OBJECTIVES

Esophageal disease may mimic acute anginal pain. However, the prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux in the acute setting of patients with clinically unstable angina (UA) pectoris is not known. The aim of this study was to determine the co-existence of coronary artery disease (CAD) and gastroesophageal reflux in UA, and to study the feasibility of esophageal investigation in the chest pain unit.

DESIGN

22 patients with clinical UA and confirmed CAD were monitored by continuous vector cardiography and pH-measurement during 24 h of observation. Symptoms of chest pain and episodes of ischemia and reflux were recorded.

RESULTS

11 patients (50%) showed abnormal gastroesophageal reflux and another three (14%) had an increased number of reflux episodes. pH-measurements and esophageal manometry were well tolerated. Few chest pain episodes were recorded during the study period, and no association between chest pain, reflux, and ischemia could be shown.

CONCLUSION

Esophageal reflux is common in patients with UA and established CAD. As reflux-related chest pain may imitate angina pectoris, it is clinically important that gastroesophageal examination in patients with UA seems to be feasible and well tolerated in the 'acute setting'.

The heart and the oesophagus: intimate relations

The close anatomical relations of the heart and oesophagus, and the similarity of symptoms attributable to disorders of either organ, often lead to diagnostic difficulty in patients with chest pain. A definitive diagnosis of non-cardiac chest pain attributable to oesophageal reflux or spasm is hampered, both by the need for prolonged ambulatory monitoring of pH, manometry, and endoscopy, and by the common occurrence of asymptomatic reflux and spasm, and the corresponding difficulty in linking an episode of reflux or spasm with an episode of pain. Moreover, some patients with non-cardiac chest pain and normal tests of oesophageal structure and function have centrally mediated hypersensitivity, both within and without the oesophagus. Rather than proceed with investigations, in the absence of symptoms to suggest structural disease of the oesophagus, it would be reasonable to attempt symptomatic treatment with a proton pump inhibitor or an antidepressant.

Chest pain from gastroesophageal reflux disease in patients with coronary artery disease

Management of patients with coronary artery disease is a major challenge for physicians, patients, and the healthcare system. Chest pain experienced by patients with coronary disease can be of noncardiac origin, and symptoms frequently related to gastroesophageal etiologies. The distal esophagus and the heart share a common afferent nerve supply, suggesting that location and radiation of perceived pain may be identical. In addition, there is substantial overlap between the prevalence of coronary disease and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Many physicians, including cardiologists, prescribe acid-reducing therapy to coronary patients. However, no prospective, randomized studies to date have evaluated the potential benefit of such treatments to prevent chest pain symptoms for these patients. We review the studies on noncardiac chest pain demonstrating reflux in patients with and without coronary disease. Also, the association of reflux with exertional chest pain and cardiac syndrome X is discussed. A rationale is presented for prevention of noncardiac chest pain in coronary patients, and the potential role of acid-suppressive therapy in managing these patients is discussed.

Diagnosis and treatment of noncardiac chest pain

Chest pain is common: one in four of the population have an episode annually. Of those who present to hospital, nearly two-thirds have noncardiac chest pain. More than half of these cases might have gastroesophageal reflux disease. Opinion differs over what is the most appropriate application of current investigatory methods. Evidence suggests that, once cardiac disease is ruled unlikely, empiric use of a proton pump inhibitor is an option; if acid suppression fails, detailed investigations as clinically indicated can be considered. A range of esophageal investigations is available, including 24-hour or 48-hour esophageal pH testing and esophageal manometry, as well as provocative tests, but there is no consensus as to which methods are the most useful. Psychiatric evaluation is not routine, but psychiatric or psychological disorders are common. Musculoskeletal disorders are also common, but are frequently overlooked. It is possible to subject patients to a comprehensive set of investigations before empiric therapy, but recent studies have failed to demonstrate an improved outcome using this exhaustive approach. A new tactic is required, with less attention spent on absolute diagnostic accuracy and more emphasis on optimizing the long-term clinical outcome in patients with noncardiac chest pain. It is possible that the targeted use of multiple drug trials in a policy of 'therapy as investigation' might be a superior methodology.

Prevalence of esophageal disorders in patients with recurrent chest pain

The objective of this study is to determine the prevalence of esophageal disorders (ED) associated with recurrent chest pain (RCP) and the utility of esophageal functional tests (EFT) in the study of these patients. The cross-sectional study was conducted at Hospital Clínico de La Frontera, Chile. One hundred and twenty-three patients with RCP were studied using esophageal manometry, edrophonium stimulation and 24-h pH monitoring. The performance of EFT was considered acceptable when they were capable of finding ED. To state the probability that RCP had an esophageal origin, patients were classified according to whether their pain had a probable, possible or unlikely esophageal origin. The prevalence of ED was determined according to diagnoses obtained after applying EFT and a multivariate analysis was performed to examine the association between the esophageal origin of RCP and ED. Rates of correct diagnosis of 65.9%, 56.9% and 31.7% was verified for 24-h pH monitoring, esophageal manometry and edrophonium stimulation, respectively. In 38.2% of patients with RCP, the pain was probably of esophageal origin, in 42.3% there was a possible esophageal origin and in 19.5% an unlikely esophageal origin. A 44.7% prevalence of GERD, 26.8% of GERD with secondary esophageal motor dysfunction and 8.9% of pure esophageal motor dysfunction were verified. The multivariate analysis allowed us to verify the association between the probability of esophageal origin of RCP, the variables RCP duration, esophagitis and dysphagia coexistence (P= 0.037, P= 0.030 and P= 0.024, respectively), and a statistically significant association between ED and dysphagia coexistence (P= 0.028). A high prevalence of ED was identified in patients with RCP.

The prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux in asthma patients without reflux symptoms

Gastroesophageal reflux is a potential trigger of asthma that may be clinically silent. This study examines the prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux in asthma patients without reflux symptoms. This prospective cohort study evaluated 26 patients with stable asthma without reflux symptoms using esophageal manometry and 24-h esophageal pH testing. Gastroesophageal reflux was considered present if esophageal acid contact times were abnormal. Demographic variables were analyzed to determine if they predicted the presence of gastroesophageal reflux. Asthma patients with asymptomatic gastroesophageal reflux were compared with 30 age-matched asthma patients with symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux. The prevalence of abnormal 24-h esophageal pH tests in asthma patients without reflux symptoms was 62% (16 of 26). Demographic variables did not predict abnormal 24-h esophageal pH tests in asthma patients with asymptomatic gastroesophageal reflux. Asthma patients with asymptomatic gastroesophageal reflux had higher amounts of proximal esophageal acid exposure (p < 0.05) compared with asthma patients with symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux. Because demographic variables do not predict abnormal 24-h esophageal pH tests in asthma patients without reflux symptoms, 24-h esophageal pH testing is required. This study suggests that gastroesophageal reflux is present in asthma patients, even in the absence of esophageal symptoms.

Visceral chest pain in unstable angina pectoris and effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. (TENS). A review

A substantial proportion of patients with chest pain referred to hospital, show signs of coronary artery disease. Anginal pain could be conceptualized as a warning signal for coronary artery disease and impending death. But, for many reasons this theory is partly disputed. Firstly, not all ischemic episodes are accompanied by anginal pain (silent ischemia). Secondly, chest pain indistinguishable from true angina pectoris may be the result of other abnormalities of thoracic viscera. Nevertheless acute severe cardiac ischemia often gives rise to anginal chest pain. Unstable angina pectoris is carrying a higher risk for future events in spite of intensive medical treatment. A special problem are patients awaiting coronary intervention because of severe ischemia and maximum medical treatment, who experience ischemic pain. New treatment regimens are needed for these patients. This review discusses the symptom of visceral pain from the heart, angina pectoris, its relation to ischemia and unstable angina pectoris. It also addresses the role of afferent nerve stimulation (transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, TENS) in the treatment of severe angina pectoris as well as recent findings of TENS applicability in unstable angina.

[Significance of esophagocardiac reflexes for inducing thoracic pain]

In the clinical setting the cardiologists' interest is focussed on the esophagus as a potential source of thoracic pain as a differential diagnosis of angina pectoris. However, visceral afferences originating in the mucosal wall of the esophagus activated by acid exposure may also influence cardiac function. The available data convincingly demonstrate a reduction of the exertional angina threshold and changes of the ECG (ST segment depression and arrhythmia). These effects are most likely due to a reduced coronary blood flow.

24-h esophageal pH testing in asthmatics: respiratory symptom correlation with esophageal acid events

BACKGROUND

Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) may be a trigger for asthma and may be clinically silent. Twenty-four-hour esophageal pH testing accurately diagnoses GER in asthmatics. There are no reports correlating respiratory symptoms with esophageal acid events. This study examines the prevalence and severity of GER in asthmatics with and without reflux symptoms and examines respiratory symptom correlation with esophageal acid.

METHODS

All esophageal manometry and 24-h esophageal pH tests performed were reviewed in asthmatics who met entrance criteria from July 1, 1989, through November 1, 1994. GER was present if esophageal pH tests were abnormal. Results of esophageal tests were compared for asthmatics with reflux symptoms and GER and asthmatics without reflux symptoms and GER. Respiratory symptoms correlated with esophageal acid events if the esophageal pH was < 4 simultaneously with the respiratory event or within 5 min before its onset.

RESULTS

Of 199 asthmatics who qualified for analysis, 164 (82%) had reflux symptoms. The results of 24-h esophageal pH tests were abnormal in 118 of 164 asthmatics with reflux symptoms (72%), compared with 10 of 35 asthmatics without reflux symptoms (29%). Among asthmatics with GER, 119 of 151 respiratory symptoms (78.8%) were associated with esophageal acid. Seventy-six of 84 reported coughs (90.5%) were associated with esophageal acid. Theophylline did not alter esophageal parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a strong correlation between esophageal acid events and respiratory symptoms in asthmatics with GER. Respiratory symptom correlation with esophageal acid events further supports that GER may be a trigger for asthma.

Typical and atypical presentations of gastroesophageal reflux disease. The role of esophageal testing in diagnosis and management

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a common disease with many typical and atypical forms of presentation. In the classic presentations of GERD with heartburn and regurgitation, esophageal testing, except for endoscopy, is only required for poorly responding patients or prior to surgical therapy. The atypical presentations of GERD, including chest pain, asthma, and ear, nose, and throat complaints, frequently are not associated with heartburn or regurgitation. Esophageal testing, particularly 24-hour pH monitoring is key to making the diagnosis and ensuring adequate acid suppression.

Cardiac ischaemia induces vagally mediated lower oesophageal sphincter relaxation

Gastro-oesophageal reflux and coronary artery disease frequently coexist. Direct stimulation of myocardial vagal receptors impairs lower oesophageal sphincter (LOS) function but the effect of cardiac ischaemia has not been examined. Eight adult mongrel dogs were studied under general anaesthesia. Each underwent occlusion of the left circumflex coronary artery before and after bilateral cervical vagotomy. Blood pressure, heart rate and LOS responses were measured. Median (range) LOS tone was significantly reduced by coronary artery occlusion, from 9 (6-14) to 6 (3-8) sphinctometer units (P < 0.01). This was accompanied by a reduction in heart rate (P < 0.05) and blood pressure (P < 0.01). After bilateral cervical vagotomy the same ischaemic insult produced no significant alteration in LOS tone or heart rate. These data suggest a direct vagal reflex to explain the high incidence of gastro-oesophageal reflux in patients with coronary artery disease.

Validity of ambulatory 24-h oesophageal pH measurement in the diagnosis of reflux disease

The validity of 24-h oesophageal pH recording was studied in 100 consecutive patients who had gastro-oesophageal reflux (GER) symptoms and had indications for a 24-h pH recording. The aim was to explore the relationship of patient symptoms, endoscopic findings and histopathological analysis of oesophageal mucosa with the findings in pH recording. Among these patients with typical GER symptoms, the multiplicity of symptoms or their nature did not differentiate them, but in all groups abnormal amounts of reflux were present, as compared with usual reference pH recording values. Yet, among these symptomatic patients, the macroscopic severity of oesophagitis and histologically defined oesophagitis were related to increased abnormality of 24-h pH recording. The results suggest that 24-h pH recording of the oesophagus gives a good indication of the severity of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease and, as such, superior to patient symptoms.

Bradykinin, coronary artery disease and gastro-oesophageal reflux

Gastro-oesophageal reflux and coronary artery disease frequently coexist. Stimulation of myocardial vagal receptors impairs lower oesophageal sphincter (LOS) function and may explain this link. This study examined the role of bradykinin, produced in increased quantities by the ischaemic myocardium, in activating this reflex. Thirteen dogs had patches soaked in bradykinin 100 micrograms/ml and saline applied sequentially to the left ventricular epicardium. Eleven of these animals were further divided into two subgroups: group 1 animals (six dogs) had the above sequence repeated after obliteration of sympathetic afferent fibres with phenol and those in group 2 (five animals) underwent sequential intravenous and intra-atrial injection of bradykinin 0.2 micrograms/kg. Epicardial bradykinin produced a fall in mean(s.e.m.) LOS tone from 13.3(1.3) to 6.0(0.5) sphinctometer units (P < 0.002), accompanied by a reduction in mean(s.e.m.) arterial pressure from 95(4) to 83(5) mmHg (P < 0.002). Destruction of sympathetic afferent fibres did not alter the LOS effect. Intra-atrial, but not intravenous, bradykinin reproduced the LOS effect; this suggests a cardiac origin. Myocardial release of bradykinin may play a role in producing transient LOS relaxation, predisposing to gastro-oesophageal reflux.

EVALUATION OF NON-CARDIAC CHEST PAIN

A series of five cases of non-cardiac chest pain is being reported. In all cases, a detailed cardiac work up excluded coronary artery disease (CAD). Upper gastro-intestinal endoscopy was found to be useful. Gastro esophageal reflux disease (GERD) was diagnosed in three cases. The diagnosis of esophageal disease was clinical in the other two. All patients responded well to further treatment and have been followed up for six months to two years.

Esophageal dysfunction as a cause of angina pectoris ("linked angina"): does it exist?

PURPOSE

The differentiation between cardiac and esophageal causes of retrosternal chest pain is notoriously difficult. Theoretically, cardiac and esophageal causes may coexist. It has also been reported that gastroesophageal reflux and esophageal motor abnormalities may elicit myocardial ischemia and chest pain, a phenomenon called linked angina pectoris. The aim of this study was to assess the incidence of esophageal abnormalities as a cause of retrosternal chest pain in patients with previously documented coronary artery disease.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Thirty consecutive patients were studied, all of whom had undergone coronary arteriography. The patients were studied after they were admitted to the coronary care unit with an attack of typical chest pain. On electrocardiograms (ECGs) taken during pain, 15 patients (group I) had new signs of ischemia; the other 15 patients (group II) did not. In none of the patients were cardiac enzymes elevated. As soon as possible, but within 2 hours after admission, combined 24-hour recording of esophageal pressure and pH was performed. During chest pain, 12-lead ECG recording was carried out.

RESULTS

In group I, all 15 patients experienced one or more pain episodes during admission, 25 of which were associated with ischemic electrocardiographic changes. The other two episodes were reflux-related. Only one of the 25 ischemia-associated pain episodes was also reflux-related, ie, it was preceded by a reflux episode. In group II, 19 chest pain episodes occurred in 11 patients. None of these was associated with electrocardiographic changes, but 8 were associated with reflux (42%) and 8 with abnormal esophageal motility (42%).

CONCLUSION

Linked angina is a rare phenomenon.

Radionuclide esophageal transit test: detection of esophageal dysmotility and reflux in noncardiac chest pain

Thirty-one patients with substernal chest pain but with normal coronary angiographic findings and 25 normal volunteers were included in our study. Esophageal motility--including esophageal mean transit time (MTT), residual fraction (RF), and retrograde index (RI) of the two groups--were evaluated by the radionuclide esophageal transit test. The results showed that among patients with noncardiac chest pain (NCP), 48% have a longer MTT, 39% have a higher RF, and 58% have a higher RI than normal volunteers. We found that esophageal disorders are a common source of noncardiac chest pain, and that radionuclide esophageal transit test is a simple noninvasive screening method to detect esophageal dysmotility or gastroesophageal reflux in such cases.

The diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction in the emergency department; Part 1

Despite major advances in treatment, the accurate diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in the emergency department (ED) remains a difficult clinical problem and is still mainly based on the history and interpretation of the electrocardiogram. Although the physician's clinical impression is a highly sensitive indicator for AMI, at least 4% of patients presenting to the ED with AMI may be mistakenly sent home. Although chest pain is the most common chief complaint, the clinical presentation can be extremely variable, particularly in the elderly. Complaints of sharp chest pain or chest wall tenderness should not be relied upon to exclude AMI. Radiation of chest pain is an important symptom. With careful analysis, the electrocardiogram may yield a higher diagnostic sensitivity than is commonly accepted.

Current medical therapy for esophageal motility disorders

Treatment of patients with an esophageal source of chest pain remains a challenging problem. Although a variety of measures--including nitrates, anticholinergics, sedatives, calcium channel antagonists, esophageal dilation, and psychological reassurance--are available for the management of esophageal chest pain, none has emerged as the treatment of choice. Studies of nitrate preparations for the treatment of painful motility disorders are limited by a small number of patients and the lack of randomized, placebo-controlled investigations. The efficacy of anticholinergic drugs in hypercontractile esophageal motility disorders has not been reported. In the only prospective placebo-controlled trial using an anti-depressant, trazodone was superior to placebo in relieving symptoms in patients with a variety of esophageal motility disorders. Conflicting results have been described in placebo-controlled trials of the calcium channel antagonists nifedipine and diltiazem in patients with "nutcracker esophagus" or diffuse spasm. Information about the efficacy of verapamil and hydralazine is limited. Esophageal dilation has been useful in selected patients. For many patients, esophageal chest pain may be associated with gastroesophageal reflux. Treatment of these patients with nitrates, calcium channel antagonists, or anticholinergics may aggravate their reflux. The mechanisms of esophageal chest pain remain unknown. Recent studies have suggested that abnormal motility may not be the only factor associated with chest pain. An important number of patients have behavioral abnormalities, increased nociception, impaired coronary vasodilatory reserve, or a diffuse abnormality of smooth muscle. Research into rational therapy for chest pain patients should take into account the contribution of these other factors.

Anginal pain of esophageal origin: clinical presentation, prevalence, and prognosis

Since 1768, when Heberden recognized a relationship of angina pectoris with eating, the close resemblance between angina-like pain of esophageal and cardiac origin has led to diagnostic confusion, with the role of the esophagus being, in turn, over- and underemphasized as a cause of symptoms. Although the classic features of angina do not distinguish the origin of the pain, certain other symptoms may identify esophageal pain. These include an inconsistent correlation of exercise with pain, periods of prolonged remission, provocation of pain by posture, association with other esophageal symptoms, relief by antacids, radiation of pain down the right arm and into the back, occurrence of pain at night, continuation of pain as a background ache, and relief from nitroglycerine delayed by 10 minutes or longer. However, while certain symptoms may alert the clinician to the possibility that angina-like pain is due to esophageal disease, no single symptom or combination of symptoms is infallible; there is no alternative to careful assessment. Esophageal disease accounts for the greatest number of patients with chest pain of unknown origin. The prevalence of angina-like esophageal pain in unselected emergency admissions with suspected myocardial infarction is 10-20%. Approximately one third or more of patients with angina and normal coronary arteries have esophageal problems. We have followed patients with angina-like esophageal pain for 9 years. Although prognosis remains good, confirming the original noncardiac diagnosis, greater than 80% of patients continue to have chest pain of undiminished intensity, and half are limited in their ability to work. Reassurance appeared to have one beneficial result: Patients were less likely to consult a physician after a positive diagnosis had been made.

An overview of the role of calcium antagonists in the treatment of achalasia and diffuse oesophageal spasm

Early studies confirmed the beneficial effects of calcium channel blockers on the normal oesophagus, which included a decrease in lower oesophageal sphincter tone in achalasia and a decrease in oesophageal contractions and amplitude in diffuse oesophageal spasm. This resulted in the enthusiastic use of the drugs in both disorders. With further experience, and with increased recognition of side effects, the role of these drugs in the 2 disorders has been better clarified. Clinical trials in general have not reflected the improvement observed in the manometric parameters. Only a minority of patients appear to derive sustained symptomatic benefit. Calcium channel blockers may be the initial choice for high or moderate risk patients with achalasia prior to proceeding with pneumatic dilatation or surgical myotomy. In diffuse oesophageal spasm, they are a reasonable first choice for all risk categories.

Atypical chest pain. Differentiation from coronary artery disease

Atypical pain in the chest accounts for many visits to physicians. Possible sources of the pain include the pericardium, the pulmonary system, the aorta, the gastrointestinal tract, the chest wall, the mitral apparatus, and psychogenic factors. Identifying the source primarily involves taking an accurate history and understanding the prevalence of coronary artery disease in various patient populations. Electrocardiography chest films, and stress testing may help identify the source of pain. Cardiac catheterization should be reserved for patients with abnormal findings on non-invasive tests, those with unclear test results, and, rarely, as reassurance for patients with frequent episodes of atypical chest pain or their caregivers.