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Soetens E, Ballegeer M, Saelens X. An Inside Job: Applications of Intracellular Single Domain Antibodies. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10121663. [PMID: 33322697 PMCID: PMC7764588 DOI: 10.3390/biom10121663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Sera of camelid species contain a special kind of antibody that consists only of heavy chains. The variable antigen binding domain of these heavy chain antibodies can be expressed as a separate entity, called a single domain antibody that is characterized by its small size, high solubility and oftentimes exceptional stability. Because of this, most single domain antibodies fold correctly when expressed in the reducing environment of the cytoplasm, and thereby retain their antigen binding specificity. Single domain antibodies can thus be used to target a broad range of intracellular proteins. Such intracellular single domain antibodies are also known as intrabodies, and have proven to be highly useful tools for basic research by allowing visualization, disruption and even targeted degradation of intracellular proteins. Furthermore, intrabodies can be used to uncover prospective new therapeutic targets and have the potential to be applied in therapeutic settings in the future. In this review we provide a brief overview of recent advances in the field of intracellular single domain antibodies, focusing on their use as research tools and potential therapeutic applications. Special attention is given to the available methods that allow delivery of single domain antibodies into cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eline Soetens
- VIB-UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium; (E.S.); (M.B.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marlies Ballegeer
- VIB-UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium; (E.S.); (M.B.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Xavier Saelens
- VIB-UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium; (E.S.); (M.B.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Correspondence:
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Stewart MP, Langer R, Jensen KF. Intracellular Delivery by Membrane Disruption: Mechanisms, Strategies, and Concepts. Chem Rev 2018; 118:7409-7531. [PMID: 30052023 PMCID: PMC6763210 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 382] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular delivery is a key step in biological research and has enabled decades of biomedical discoveries. It is also becoming increasingly important in industrial and medical applications ranging from biomanufacture to cell-based therapies. Here, we review techniques for membrane disruption-based intracellular delivery from 1911 until the present. These methods achieve rapid, direct, and universal delivery of almost any cargo molecule or material that can be dispersed in solution. We start by covering the motivations for intracellular delivery and the challenges associated with the different cargo types-small molecules, proteins/peptides, nucleic acids, synthetic nanomaterials, and large cargo. The review then presents a broad comparison of delivery strategies followed by an analysis of membrane disruption mechanisms and the biology of the cell response. We cover mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, and chemical strategies of membrane disruption with a particular emphasis on their applications and challenges to implementation. Throughout, we highlight specific mechanisms of membrane disruption and suggest areas in need of further experimentation. We hope the concepts discussed in our review inspire scientists and engineers with further ideas to improve intracellular delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin P. Stewart
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, USA
- The Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA
| | - Robert Langer
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, USA
- The Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA
| | - Klavs F. Jensen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, USA
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König I, Zarrine-Afsar A, Aznauryan M, Soranno A, Wunderlich B, Dingfelder F, Stüber JC, Plückthun A, Nettels D, Schuler B. Single-molecule spectroscopy of protein conformational dynamics in live eukaryotic cells. Nat Methods 2015; 12:773-9. [PMID: 26147918 DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.3475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Single-molecule methods have become widely used for quantifying the conformational heterogeneity and structural dynamics of biomolecules in vitro. Their application in vivo, however, has remained challenging owing to shortcomings in the design and reproducible delivery of labeled molecules, the range of applicable analysis methods, and suboptimal cell culture conditions. By addressing these limitations in an integrated approach, we demonstrate the feasibility of probing protein dynamics from milliseconds down to the nanosecond regime in live eukaryotic cells with confocal single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) spectroscopy. We illustrate the versatility of the approach by determining the dimensions and submicrosecond chain dynamics of an intrinsically disordered protein; by detecting even subtle changes in the temperature dependence of protein stability, including in-cell cold denaturation; and by quantifying the folding dynamics of a small protein. The methodology opens possibilities for assessing the effect of the cellular environment on biomolecular conformation, dynamics and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iwo König
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Mikayel Aznauryan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Soranno
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Bengt Wunderlich
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Fabian Dingfelder
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jakob C Stüber
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Plückthun
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Nettels
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Schuler
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Venslauskas MS, Šatkauskas S. Mechanisms of transfer of bioactive molecules through the cell membrane by electroporation. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2015; 44:277-89. [PMID: 25939984 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-015-1025-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2014] [Revised: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
A short review of biophysical mechanisms for electrotransfer of bioactive molecules through the cell membrane by using electroporation is presented. The concept of transient hydrophilic aqueous pores and membrane electroporation mechanisms of single cells and cells in suspension models are analyzed. Alongside the theoretical approach, some peculiarities of drug and gene electrotransfer into cells and applications in clinical trials are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mindaugas S Venslauskas
- Biophysical Research Group, Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Vytautas Magnus University, Vileikos 8, 44404, Kaunas, Lithuania,
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van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk S, Babiuk SL, Babiuk LA. Strategies for improved formulation and delivery of DNA vaccines to veterinary target species. Immunol Rev 2004; 199:113-25. [PMID: 15233730 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2004.00140.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Interest in DNA immunization of animals continues, despite the fact that immune responses induced by DNA vaccines are generally lower than those elicited by conventional vaccines. In attempts to enhance the immune response to DNA vaccines, individuals have tried a variety of immune modulators, cytokines, and costimulatory molecules, but these only boost immune responses marginally. These results clearly demonstrate that the major challenge to improving DNA-based vaccines is to improve the transfection efficiency. Gene gun and electroporation can increase transfection and improve immune responses significantly, but these technologies have not yet advanced to the stage of routine use in livestock. Hopefully, transfection efficiency can be increased further in a user-friendly manner to ensure that the benefits of using DNA vaccines become a reality.
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Abstract
Electropermeabilization of immobilized human leukemia K562 cells was studied by measuring changes in cell volume. Such changes reflect mass transfer between the cell and external medium. Electropermeabilization was carried out in an isosmotic water-sorbitol medium with a range of electric field strengths from 500 to 800 V. cm(-1), corresponding to low-energy levels. Electroporation of the K562 cell membrane was found to provoke an inflow of sorbitol and a corresponding osmotic inflow of water and/or an outflow of intracellular solutes due to Fick diffusion. Such flows were found to involve the shrinkage, swelling, or rupture of K562 cells, depending on the characteristics of the electric field and of the physiological state of cells. The behavior of immobilized cells was observed during their exposure to the electric field. The response in immobilized cell volume corresponded with the theoretical pore size and pore opening time, permitting an explanation of the behavior of cell suspensions subject to electrical fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Ferret
- Laboratoire GPAB, ENSBANA, 1, Esplanade Erasme, Domaine Universitaire, Dijon 21000, France
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Rols MP, Teissié J. Electropermeabilization of mammalian cells to macromolecules: control by pulse duration. Biophys J 1998; 75:1415-23. [PMID: 9726943 PMCID: PMC1299816 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-3495(98)74060-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Membrane electropermeabilization to small molecules depends on several physical parameters (pulse intensity, number, and duration). In agreement with a previous study quantifying this phenomenon in terms of flow (Rols and Teissié, Biophys. J. 58:1089-1098, 1990), we report here that electric field intensity is the deciding parameter inducing membrane permeabilization and controls the extent of the cell surface where the transfer can take place. An increase in the number of pulses enhances the rate of permeabilization. The pulse duration parameter is shown to be crucial for the penetration of macromolecules into Chinese hamster ovary cells under conditions where cell viability is preserved. Cumulative effects are observed when repeated pulses are applied. At a constant number of pulses/pulse duration product, transfer of molecules is strongly affected by the time between pulses. The resealing process appears to be first-order with a decay time linearly related to the pulse duration. Transfer of macromolecules to the cytoplasm can take place only if they are present during the pulse. No direct transfer is observed with a postpulse addition. The mechanism of transfer of macromolecules into cells by electric field treatment is much more complex than the simple diffusion of small molecules through the electropermeabilized plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Rols
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale du CNRS, Toulouse, France
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