The Effects of Aerobic Exercise and Gaming on Cognitive Performance

Psychometrically validated questionnaires to measure the effects and benefits/barriers to physical exercise in hemodialysis patients: a systematic review

PURPOSE

To provide a critical assessment, summarize, and synthesize the evidence from studies using psychometrically validated questionnaires to assess the effects and benefits/barriers of physical exercise in hemodialysis patients.

METHODS

The search was performed on six electronic databases. It was conducted following the PRISMA statement and the PICO framework. The methodological quality was assessed using the MMAT. Were used the quality criteria for psychometric properties developed by Terwee et al.

RESULTS

Overall, 70 studies were included, and 39 questionnaires identified, evaluating 13 outcomes. The quality of the psychometric properties of the questionnaires was not always described; only 13 presented positive ratings on > =6/9 properties. The most assessed measure was criterion validity, and the least assessed criteria was responsiveness. The most outcome measured by these questionnaires was quality of life using SF-36, followed by psychological health using the BDI. The DPEBBS was the only instrument identified that assessed the benefits and barriers of exercise.

CONCLUSION

Quality of life and depression were the most frequent outcomes. Other measures contemplating physical, mental, cognitive performance, and especially of the perceptions benefits and barriers to exercise should be further investigated. We have clearly identified the need for more studies evaluating psychometric measures that have not been tested satisfactorily or hardly been tested at all.

The effects of an acute bout of ergometer cycling on young adults' executive function: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Purpose

The extent to which acute exercise improves executive function (EF) remains indeterminate. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to determine the effect of acute ergometer cycling exercise on executive function (EF), including the potential moderating effects of exercise intensity and duration, EF task type, and EF task onset.

Methods

We searched seven electronic research databases using cycling- and cognition-related terms. All 17 studies included were published in the last 10 years and comprised healthy participants aged 18-35 years who completed tasks assessing a variety of EFs before and after cycling exercise lasting 10-60 min. We analyzed 293 effect sizes obtained from 494 individuals (mean age = 22.07 ± 2.46 yrs). Additional analyses were performed, using averaged effect sizes for each separate study to examine the omnibus effect across studies.

Results

There was a positive effect of acute ergometer cycling exercise on response time (RT) in 16 of 17 studies reviewed and a positive effect for response accuracy (RA) in 8 of 14 studies; three studies did not report RA data. Hedges' g effect sizes [95% CI] for RT ranged from 0.06 [-0.45, 0.56] to 1.50 [0.58, 2.43] and for RA from -1.94 [-2.61, -1.28] to 1.03 [0.88, 1.19].Bouts of cycling completed at moderate intensities appear to have the greatest effect on RT (Hedges' g = 1.03 [0.88, 1.19]) but no significant effect on RA; bouts with durations of 21-30 min appear to offer the greatest benefits for both RT (Hedges' g = 0.77 [0.41, 1.13]) and RA (Hedges' g = 0.92 [0.31, 1.52]). Effect sizes were greatest for RT in inhibitory control tasks (Hedges' g = 0.91 [0.80, 1.03]) and for RT when EF tasks were completed immediately post-exercise (Hedges' g = 1.11 [0.88, 1.33]).

Findings were similar in the omnibus analyses

moderate-intensity bouts had the greatest effect on RT, SMD = 0.79 (95% CI [0.49, 1.08]), z = 5.20, p < 0.0001, as did cycling durations of 21-30 min, SMD = 0.87 (95% CI [0.58, 1.15], z = 5.95, p < 0.0001. The greatest benefits were derived for inhibitory control tasks, SMD = 0.70 (95% CI [0.43, 0.98]), z = 5.07, p < 0.04, and when the EF task was completed immediately post-exercise, SMD = 0.96 (95% CI [0.51, 1.41]), z = 4.19, p < 0.001. There were no overall effects on RA.

Conclusion

Our findings indicate that acute bouts of cycling exercise may be a viable means to enhance RTs in immediately subsequent EF task performance, but moderating and interactive effects of several exercise parameters must also be considered.

The Effects of Acute Virtual Reality Exergaming on Mood and Executive Function: Exploratory Crossover Trial

Background

Virtual reality (VR) exergaming is a new intervention strategy to help humans engage in physical activity to enhance mood. VR exergaming may improve both mood and executive function by acting on the prefrontal cortex, expanding the potential benefits. However, the impact of VR exergaming on executive function has not been fully investigated, and associated intervention strategies have not yet been established.

Objective

This study aims to investigate the effects of 10 minutes of VR exergaming on mood and executive function.

Methods

A total of 12 participants played the exergame “FitXR” under 3 conditions: (1) a VR exergame condition (ie, exercise with a head-mounted display condition [VR-EX]) in which they played using a head-mounted display, (2) playing the exergame in front of a flat display (2D-EX), and (3) a resting condition in which they sat in a chair. The color-word Stroop task (CWST), which assesses executive function; the short form of the Profile of Mood States second edition (POMS2); and the short form of the Two-Dimensional Mood Scale (TDMS), which assess mood, were administered before and after the exercise or rest conditions.

Results

The VR-EX condition increased the POMS2 vigor activity score (rest and VR-EX: t₁₁=3.69, P=.003) as well as the TDMS arousal (rest vs 2D-EX: t₁₁=5.34, P<.001; rest vs VR-EX: t₁₁=5.99, P<.001; 2D-EX vs VR-EX: t₁₁=3.02, P=.01) and vitality scores (rest vs 2D-EX: t₁₁=3.74, P=.007; rest vs VR-EX: t₁₁=4.84, P=.002; 2D-EX vs VR-EX: t₁₁=3.53, P=.006), suggesting that VR exergaming enhanced mood. Conversely, there was no effect on CWST performance in either the 2D-EX or VR-EX conditions. Interestingly, the VR-EX condition showed a significant positive correlation between changes in CWST arousal and reaction time (r=0.58, P=.046). This suggests that the effect of exergaming on improving executive function may disappear under an excessively increased arousal level in VR exergaming.

Conclusions

Our findings showed that 10 minutes of VR exergaming enhanced mood but did not affect executive function. This suggests that some VR content may increase cognitive demands, leading to psychological fatigue and cognitive decline as an individual approaches the limits of available attentional capacity. Future research must examine the combination of exercise and VR that enhances both brain function and mood.

Combined aerobic and resistance training improves physical and executive functions in women with systemic lupus erythematosus

OBJECTIVES

Exercise is considered as an adjuvant therapeutic modality to alleviate symptoms of several rheumatic diseases. However, data regarding the benefits of exercise to patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are relatively scant.

METHODS

This study aimed to assess the effects of regular, moderate-intensity, aerobic exercise combined with resistance training on women with SLE who had no regular exercise. Patients were recruited and allocated into either the exercise or control group by their willingness. Patients in the exercise group (n = 12) underwent 12 weeks of combined exercise (five days per week), whereas those in the control group (n = 11) maintained their usual lifestyle.

RESULTS

At baseline, there were no between-group differences in body composition, disease activity, two-kilometer walking test, and executive function test. After the combined exercise intervention for 12 weeks, significant improvements of both fitness index and reaction time to the stimuli in the go/no-go test were observed in the exercise group, but not in the control group. The disease activities in both study groups did not change significantly at the end of the study period.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that regular moderate-intensity aerobic exercise combined with resistance training improves the physical and executive functions of SLE patients without exacerbating disease activity.

Acute Exercise-Induced Set Shifting Benefits in Healthy Adults and Its Moderators: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Positive effects of acute exercise on cognitive performances in general inspired research that investigated the effects of acute exercise on specific cognitive subdomains. Many existing studies examined beneficial effects of acute exercise on subsequent set shifting performance in healthy adults. Set shifting, a subdomain of executive function, is the ability to switch between different cognitive sets. The results of existing studies are inconsistent. Therefore, a meta-analysis was conducted that pooled available effect sizes. Additionally, moderator analyses were carried out to identify covariates that determine the magnitude of exercise-induced set shifting benefits.

Methods: Medline, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus were searched for eligible studies. Hedges' g corrected standardized mean difference values were used for analyses. Random-effects weights were applied to pool effects. Potential moderation of the effect of acute exercise on subsequent set shifting performance by exercise intensity, type of exercise, participants' age, and type of control group were examined.

Results: Twenty-two studies (N = 1,900) were included into analysis. All aggregated effect sizes ranged from small to moderate. Overall, a small significant beneficial effect was revealed (g = −0.32, 95 % CI −0.45 to −0.18). Heterogeneity of included effect sizes was moderate and significant (T² = 0.0715, I² = 46.4%, (p < 0.0016). Moderator analyses revealed a larger average effect in older adults than for studies examining younger adults (−0.42 vs. −0.29). Light exercise (−0.51) led to larger effects than moderate (−0.24) or vigorous exercise (−0.29). Studies testing acute exercise against active control groups showed a noticeably smaller average effect (−0.13) than studies that used passive (−0.38) or cognitive engaging control groups (−0.34). Interestingly, application of resistance or aerobic exercise led to no different average effect sizes (−0.30 vs. −0.32). However, none of the tested covariates reached statistical significance.

Conclusion: Acute exercise improves subsequent set shifting performance. However, effect sizes are small, making the relevance for everyday life questionable. The results indicate that older adults benefit more from acute exercise than younger adults do. Light intensity exercise seems most effective while the type of exercise does not seem to influence the magnitude of effects. Research designs with active control groups show the smallest average effect, raising concerns about placebo effects.

PROSPERO registration number: CRD42019138799

Converging Evidence Supporting the Cognitive Link between Exercise and Esport Performance: A Dual Systematic Review

(1) Background: Research into action video games (AVG) has surged with the popularity of esports over the past three decades. Specifically, evidence is mounting regarding the importance of enhanced cognitive abilities for successful esports performance. However, due to the sedentary nature in which AVGs are played, concerns are growing with the increased engagement young adults have with AVGs. While evidence exists supporting the benefits of exercise for cognition generally in older adult, children and clinical populations, little to no work has synthesized the existing knowledge regarding the effect of exercise specifically on the cognitive abilities required for optimal esports performance in young adults. (2) Method: We conducted a dual-systematic review to identify the cognitive abilities integral to esports performance (Phase 1) and the efficacy of exercise to enhance said cognitive abilities (Phase 2). (3) Results: We demonstrate the importance of four specific cognitive abilities for AVG play (attention, task-switching, information processing, and memory abilities) and the effect that different types and durations of physical exercise has on each. (4) Conclusion: Together, these results highlight the role that exercise can have on not only combating the sedentary nature of gaming, but also its potential role in facilitating the cognitive aspects of gaming performance.

Effects and Moderators of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Subsequent Interference Control: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Acute aerobic exercise leads to positive physiological adaptations within the central nervous system. These findings inspired research on potential cognitive benefits following acute aerobic exercise. The effects of acute aerobic exercise on subsequent cognitive performance, by far, have been the most researched for interference control, a subcomponent of executive function. The results of primary studies on the effects of acute aerobic exercise on subsequent interference control performance are inconsistent. Therefore, we used meta-analytic methods to pool available effect sizes, and to identify covariates that determine the magnitude of exercise-induced interference control benefits. Methods: Medline, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus were searched for eligible records. Hedges' g corrected standardized mean difference values (SMDs) were used for analyses. Random-effects weights were used to pool effect sizes. Moderator analyses were conducted using meta-regressions and subgroups analyses. Covariates that were here tested for moderation included parameters of the applied exercise regimen (exercise intensity and exercise duration), characteristics of examined participants (age and fitness), and methodological features of existing research (type of control group, familiarization with test procedure, type of test variable, delay between exercise cessation, and testing). Results: Fifty studies, with data from 2,366 participants, were included in qualitative and quantitative synthesis. A small, significant beneficial effect of acute aerobic exercise on time-dependent measures of interference control was revealed (k = 49, Hedges' g = -0.26, 95%CI: -34 to -0.18). Effect sizes from time-dependent measures of interference control varied widely and heterogeneity reached statistical significance (T 2 = 0.0557, I 2 = 28.8%). Moderator analyses revealed that higher exercise intensities (vigorous intensity and high-intensity interval training), also participants at younger or older age, and participants who are familiar with the testing procedure prior to the experiment, benefitted most from acute aerobic exercise. However, noticeable heterogeneity remained unexplained within specific subgroups (high-intensity interval training, preadolescent children, and active and supervised control group). Conclusion: Acute aerobic exercise improves subsequent interference control performance. However, the covariates exercise intensity, participants' age, and familiarization with testing procedure determine the magnitude of that effect. Methodological features were not found to influence the magnitude of effects. This dismisses some doubts that exercise induced benefits for interference control performance are scientific artifacts. The fact that large heterogeneity remained unexplained in some subgroups indicates the need for further research on covariates within these subgroups. It should be noted that effect sizes for all analyses were small.

The Face of Early Cognitive Decline? Shape and Asymmetry Predict Choice Reaction Time Independent of Age, Diet or Exercise

Slower reaction time is a measure of cognitive decline and can occur as early as 24 years of age. We are interested if developmental stability predicts cognitive performance independent of age and lifestyle (e.g., diet and exercise). Developmental stability is the latent capacity to buffer ontogenetic stressors and is measured by low fluctuating asymmetry (FA). FA is random—with respect to the largest side—departures from perfect morphological symmetry. The degree of asymmetry has been associated with physical fitness, morbidity, and mortality in many species, including humans. We expected that low FA (independent of age, diet and exercise) will predict faster choice reaction time (i.e., correct keyboard responses to stimuli appearing in a random location on a computer monitor). Eighty-eight university students self-reported their fish product consumption, exercise, had their faces 3D scanned and cognitive performance measured. Unexpectedly, increased fish product consumption was associated with worsened choice reaction time. Facial asymmetry and multiple face shape variation parameters predicted slower choice reaction time independent of sex, age, diet or exercise. Future work should develop longitudinal interventions to minimize early cognitive decline among vulnerable people (e.g., those who have experienced ontogenetic stressors affecting optimal neurocognitive development).