Microbial burden and inflammasome activation in amniotic fluid of patients with preterm prelabor rupture of membranes

Membrane inflammasome activation by choriodecidual Ureaplasma parvum infection without intra-amniotic infection in a Non-Human Primate model†

Intrauterine infection is a significant cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality. Ureaplasma parvum is a microorganism commonly isolated from cases of preterm birth and preterm premature rupture of membranes (pPROM). However, the mechanisms of early stage ascending reproductive tract infection remain poorly understood. To examine inflammation in fetal (chorioamnionic) membranes we utilized a non-human primate (NHP) model of choriodecidual U. parvum infection. Eight chronically catheterized pregnant rhesus macaques underwent maternal-fetal catheterization surgery at ~105-112 days gestation and choriodecidual inoculation with U. parvum (105 CFU/mL, n =4) or sterile media (controls; n = 4) starting at 115-119 days, repeated at 5-day intervals until C-section at 136-140 days (term=167 days). The average inoculation to delivery interval was 21 days, and Ureaplasma infection of the amniotic fluid (AF) was undetectable in all animals. Choriodecidual Ureaplasma infection resulted in increased fetal membrane expression of MMP-9 and PTGS2, but did not result in preterm labor or increased concentrations of AF pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, membrane expression of inflammasome sensors, NLRP3, NLRC4, AIM2, and NOD2, and adaptor ASC (PYCARD) gene expression were significantly increased. Gene expression of IL-1β, IL-18, IL-18R1  , CASPASE-1, and pro-CASPASE-1 protein increased with Ureaplasma infection. Downstream inflammatory genes MYD88 and NFκB (Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) were also significantly upregulated. These results demonstrate that choriodecidual Ureaplasma infection, can cause activation of inflammasome complexes and pathways associated with pPROM and preterm labor prior to microbes being detectable in the AF.

Deciphering maternal-fetal cross-talk in the human placenta during parturition using single-cell RNA sequencing

Labor is a complex physiological process requiring a well-orchestrated dialogue between the mother and fetus. However, the cellular contributions and communications that facilitate maternal-fetal cross-talk in labor have not been fully elucidated. Here, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) was applied to decipher maternal-fetal signaling in the human placenta during term labor. First, a single-cell atlas of the human placenta was established, demonstrating that maternal and fetal cell types underwent changes in transcriptomic activity during labor. Cell types most affected by labor were fetal stromal and maternal decidual cells in the chorioamniotic membranes (CAMs) and maternal and fetal myeloid cells in the placenta. Cell-cell interaction analyses showed that CAM and placental cell types participated in labor-driven maternal and fetal signaling, including the collagen, C-X-C motif ligand (CXCL), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), galectin, and interleukin-6 (IL-6) pathways. Integration of scRNA-seq data with publicly available bulk transcriptomic data showed that placenta-derived scRNA-seq signatures could be monitored in the maternal circulation throughout gestation and in labor. Moreover, comparative analysis revealed that placenta-derived signatures in term labor were mirrored by those in spontaneous preterm labor and birth. Furthermore, we demonstrated that early in gestation, labor-specific, placenta-derived signatures could be detected in the circulation of women destined to undergo spontaneous preterm birth, with either intact or prelabor ruptured membranes. Collectively, our findings provide insight into the maternal-fetal cross-talk of human parturition and suggest that placenta-derived single-cell signatures can aid in the development of noninvasive biomarkers for the prediction of preterm birth.

Membrane Inflammasome Activation by Choriodecidual Ureaplasma parvum Infection without Intra-Amniotic Infection in an NHP Model

Intrauterine infection is a significant cause of preterm labor and neonatal morbidity and mortality. Ureaplasma parvum is the micro-organism most commonly isolated from cases of preterm birth and preterm premature rupture of membranes (pPROM). However, the mechanisms during the early stages of ascending reproductive tract infection that initiate maternal-fetal inflammatory pathways, preterm birth and pPROM remain poorly understood. To examine inflammation in fetal (chorioamnionic) membranes in response to Ureaplasma parvum infection, we utilized a novel in vivo non-human primate model of early choriodecidual infection. Eight chronically catheterized pregnant rhesus macaques underwent maternal-fetal catheterization surgery at 105-112 days gestation and choriodecidual inoculation with Ureaplasma parvum (10 5 cfu/mL of a low passaged clinical isolate, serovar 1; n=4) or saline/sterile media (Controls; n=4) starting at 115-119 days gestation, repeated every 5 days until scheduled cesarean-section at 136-140d gestation (term=167d). The average inoculation to delivery interval was 21 days and Ureaplasma infection of the amniotic fluid was undetectable by culture and PCR in all animals. Inflammatory mediators in amniotic fluid (AF) were assessed by Luminex, ELISA and multiplex assays. RNA was extracted from the chorion and amnionic membranes for single gene analysis (qRT-PCR) and protein expression was determined by Western blot and immunohistochemistry. Our NHP model of choriodecidual Ureaplasma infection, representing an early-stage ascending reproductive tract infection without microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity, resulted in increased fetal membrane protein and gene expression of MMP-9 and PTGS2, but did not result in preterm labor (no increase in uterine contractility) or increased concentrations of amniotic fluid pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, TNF-α). However, membrane expression of inflammasome sensor molecules, NLRP3, NLRC4, AIM2 and NOD2, and the adaptor protein ASC ( PYCARD ) gene expression were significantly increased in the Ureaplasma group when compared to non-infected controls. Gene expression of IL-1 β, IL-18, the IL-18R1 receptor , CASPASE-1 and pro-CASPASE-1 protein were also increased in the fetal membranes with Ureaplasma infection. Downstream inflammatory signaling genes MYD88 was also significantly upregulated in both the amnion and chorion, along with a significant increase in NFKB in the chorion. These results demonstrate that even at the early stages of ascending reproductive tract Ureaplasma infection, activation of inflammasome complexes and pathways associated with degradation of chorioamnionic membrane integrity are present. This study therefore provides experimental evidence for the importance of the early stages of ascending Ureaplasma infection in initiating processes of pPROM and preterm labor. These findings have implications for the identification of intrauterine inflammation before microbes are detectable in the amniotic fluid (sterile inflammation) and the timing of potential treatments for preterm labor and fetal injury caused by intrauterine infection.

Cervical excisional treatment increases the risk of intraamniotic infection in subsequent pregnancy complicated by preterm prelabor rupture of membranes

BACKGROUND

Excisional treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or very early stages of cervical cancer increases the risk of preterm prelabor rupture of membranes in subsequent pregnancies. The risk increases with the length of the excised cone. The subset of cases with preterm prelabor rupture of membranes and a history of cervical excisional treatment could also be at higher risk of intraamniotic infection/inflammation. However, there is a paucity of relevant information on this subject.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to assess the differences in the rates of intraamniotic infection/inflammation and early-onset neonatal sepsis between singleton preterm prelabor rupture of membranes pregnancies without and with a history of cervical excisional treatment, and to investigate the association between these complications of preterm prelabor rupture of membranes and the excised cone length.

STUDY DESIGN

This retrospective cohort study included 770 preterm prelabor rupture of membranes pregnancies in which transabdominal amniocentesis was performed as part of standard clinical management to assess the intraamniotic environment. The maternal and perinatal medical records of all included women were reviewed to obtain information on the absence or presence of history of cervical excisional treatment and neonatal outcomes. Women whose records contained any information on history of cervical excisional treatment were contacted by phone and in writing to inform them of the study and request permission to collect relevant information from their medical records. Women were divided into 4 subgroups according to the presence of microorganisms and/or their nucleic acids (through culturing and molecular biology methods) in amniotic fluid and/or intraamniotic inflammation (through amniotic fluid interleukin-6 concentration evaluation): intraamniotic infection (presence of both), sterile intraamniotic inflammation (intraamniotic inflammation alone), microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity without inflammation (presence of microorganisms and/or their nucleic acids in amniotic fluid alone), and negative amniotic fluid for infection/inflammation (absence of both).

RESULTS

A history of cervical excisional treatment was found in 10% (76/765) of the women. Of these, 82% (62/76) had a history of only 1 treatment, and information on cone length was available for 97% (60/62) of them. Women with a history of cervical excisional treatment had higher rates of intraamniotic infection (with, 25% [19/76] vs without, 12% [85/689]; adjusted odds ratio, 2.5; adjusted P=.004), microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity without inflammation (with, 25% [19/76] vs without, 11% [74/689]; adjusted odds ratio, 3.1; adjusted P<.0001), and early-onset neonatal sepsis (with, 8% [11/76] vs without, 3% [23/689]; adjusted odds ratio, 2.9; adjusted P=.02) compared with those without such history. Quartiles of cone length (range: 3-32 mm) were used to categorize the women into 4 quartile subgroups (first: 3-8 mm; second: 9-12 mm; third: 13-17 mm; and fourth: 18-32 mm). Cone length of ≥18 mm was associated with higher rates of intraamniotic infection (with, 29% [5/15] vs without, 12% [85/689]; adjusted odds ratio, 3.0; adjusted P=.05), microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity without inflammation (with, 40% [6/15] vs without, 11% [74/689]; adjusted odds ratio, 6.1; adjusted P=.003), and early-onset neonatal sepsis (with, 20% [3/15] vs without, 3% [23/689]; adjusted odds ratio, 5.7; adjusted P=.02).

CONCLUSION

History of cervical excisional treatment increases risks of intraamniotic infection, microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity without inflammation, and development of early-onset neonatal sepsis in a subsequent pregnancy complicated by preterm prelabor rupture of membranes.

A single-cell atlas of murine reproductive tissues during preterm labor

Preterm birth, the leading cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality worldwide, frequently results from the syndrome of preterm labor. The best-established causal link to preterm labor is intra-amniotic infection, which involves premature activation of the parturition cascade in the reproductive tissues. Herein, we utilize single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to generate a single-cell atlas of the murine uterus, decidua, and cervix in a model of infection-induced preterm labor. We show that preterm labor affects the transcriptomic profiles of specific immune and non-immune cell subsets. Shared and tissue-specific gene expression signatures are identified among affected cells. Determination of intercellular communications implicates specific cell types in preterm labor-associated signaling pathways across tissues. In silico comparison of murine and human uterine cell-cell interactions reveals conserved signaling pathways implicated in labor. Thus, our scRNA-seq data provide insights into the preterm labor-driven cellular landscape and communications in reproductive tissues.

The amniotic fluid proteome predicts imminent preterm delivery in asymptomatic women with a short cervix

Preterm birth, the leading cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality, is associated with increased risk of short- and long-term adverse outcomes. For women identified as at risk for preterm birth attributable to a sonographic short cervix, the determination of imminent delivery is crucial for patient management. The current study aimed to identify amniotic fluid (AF) proteins that could predict imminent delivery in asymptomatic patients with a short cervix. This retrospective cohort study included women enrolled between May 2002 and September 2015 who were diagnosed with a sonographic short cervix (< 25 mm) at 16–32 weeks of gestation. Amniocenteses were performed to exclude intra-amniotic infection; none of the women included had clinical signs of infection or labor at the time of amniocentesis. An aptamer-based multiplex platform was used to profile 1310 AF proteins, and the differential protein abundance between women who delivered within two weeks from amniocentesis, and those who did not, was determined. The analysis included adjustment for quantitative cervical length and control of the false-positive rate at 10%. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was calculated to determine whether protein abundance in combination with cervical length improved the prediction of imminent preterm delivery as compared to cervical length alone. Of the 1,310 proteins profiled in AF, 17 were differentially abundant in women destined to deliver within two weeks of amniocentesis independently of the cervical length (adjusted p-value < 0.10). The decreased abundance of SNAP25 and the increased abundance of GPI, PTPN11, OLR1, ENO1, GAPDH, CHI3L1, RETN, CSF3, LCN2, CXCL1, CXCL8, PGLYRP1, LDHB, IL6, MMP8, and PRTN3 were associated with an increased risk of imminent delivery (odds ratio > 1.5 for each). The sensitivity at a 10% false-positive rate for the prediction of imminent delivery by a quantitative cervical length alone was 38%, yet it increased to 79% when combined with the abundance of four AF proteins (CXCL8, SNAP25, PTPN11, and MMP8). Neutrophil-mediated immunity, neutrophil activation, granulocyte activation, myeloid leukocyte activation, and myeloid leukocyte-mediated immunity were biological processes impacted by protein dysregulation in women destined to deliver within two weeks of diagnosis. The combination of AF protein abundance and quantitative cervical length improves prediction of the timing of delivery compared to cervical length alone, among women with a sonographic short cervix.

Comprehensive human amniotic fluid metagenomics supports the sterile womb hypothesis

As metagenomic approaches for detecting infectious agents have improved, each tissue that was once thought to be sterile has been found to harbor a variety of microorganisms. Controversy still exists over the status of amniotic fluid, which is part of an immunologically privileged zone that is required to prevent maternal immune system rejection of the fetus. Due to this privilege, the exclusion of microbes has been proposed to be mandatory, leading to the sterile womb hypothesis. Since nucleic acid yields from amniotic fluid are very low, contaminating nucleic acid found in water, reagents and the laboratory environment frequently confound attempts to address this hypothesis. Here we present metagenomic criteria for microorganism detection and a metagenomic method able to be performed with small volumes of starting material, while controlling for exogenous contamination, to circumvent these and other pitfalls. We use this method to show that human mid-gestational amniotic fluid has no detectable virome or microbiome, supporting the sterile womb hypothesis.

Optimization and validation of two multiplex qPCR assays for the rapid detection of microorganisms commonly invading the amniotic cavity

Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity (MIAC) leading to infection is strongly associated with adverse pregnancy and neonatal outcomes. Limitations of current diagnostic assays to detect MIAC rapidly and accurately have hindered the ability of obstetricians to identify and treat intra-amniotic infections. We developed, optimized, and validated two multiplex quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays for the simultaneous detection and quantification of microbial taxa commonly associated with MIAC. The first assay allows for the quantification of general bacterial and fungal loads in amniotic fluid and includes a human reference gene to allow for assessing the integrity of clinical samples and the DNA extraction process. The second assay allows for the detection and quantification of four specific bacterial taxa commonly associated with MIAC: Ureaplasma spp., Mycoplasma hominis, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Fusobacterium nucleatum. The qPCR assays were validated by using both microbial isolates and clinical amniotic fluid samples. The assays were further validated by comparing qPCR amplification results to those from the microbial culture and bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequencing of amniotic fluid. Both assays demonstrated high reproducibility and are sensitive and specific to their intended targets. Therefore, these assays represent promising molecular diagnostic tools for the detection of MIAC. Most importantly, these assays may allow for administration of timely and targeted antibiotic interventions to reduce adverse perinatal outcomes attributed to intra-amniotic infections.

Bacteria in the amniotic fluid without inflammation: early colonization vs. contamination

OBJECTIVES

Intra-amniotic infection, defined by the presence of microorganisms in the amniotic cavity, is often accompanied by intra-amniotic inflammation. Occasionally, laboratories report the growth of bacteria or the presence of microbial nucleic acids in amniotic fluid in the absence of intra-amniotic inflammation. This study was conducted to determine the clinical significance of the presence of bacteria in amniotic fluid samples in the absence of intra-amniotic inflammation.

METHODS

A retrospective cross-sectional study included 360 patients with preterm labor and intact membranes who underwent transabdominal amniocentesis for evaluation of the microbial state of the amniotic cavity as well as intra-amniotic inflammation. Cultivation techniques were used to isolate microorganisms, and broad-range polymerase chain reaction coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (PCR/ESI-MS) was utilized to detect the nucleic acids of bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

RESULTS

Patients whose amniotic fluid samples evinced microorganisms but did not indicate inflammation had a similar perinatal outcome to those without microorganisms or inflammation [amniocentesis-to-delivery interval (p=0.31), spontaneous preterm birth before 34 weeks (p=0.83), acute placental inflammatory lesions (p=1), and composite neonatal morbidity (p=0.8)].

CONCLUSIONS

The isolation of microorganisms from a sample of amniotic fluid in the absence of intra-amniotic inflammation is indicative of a benign condition, which most likely represents contamination of the specimen during the collection procedure or laboratory processing rather than early colonization or infection.

The Role of Innate Immune System in the Human Amniotic Membrane and Human Amniotic Fluid in Protection Against Intra-Amniotic Infections and Inflammation

Intra-amniotic infection and inflammation (IAI) affect fetal development and are highly associated with preterm labor and premature rupture of membranes, which often lead to adverse neonatal outcomes. Human amniotic membrane (hAM), the inner part of the amnio-chorionic membrane, protects the embryo/fetus from environmental dangers, including microbial infection. However, weakened amnio-chorionic membrane may be breached or pathogens may enter through a different route, leading to IAI. The hAM and human amniotic fluid (hAF) respond by activation of all components of the innate immune system. This includes changes in 1) hAM structure, 2) presence of immune cells, 3) pattern recognition receptors, 4) cytokines, 5) antimicrobial peptides, 6) lipid derivatives, and 7) complement system. Herein we provide a comprehensive and integrative review of the current understanding of the innate immune response in the hAM and hAF, which will aid in design of novel studies that may lead to breakthroughs in how we perceive the IAI.

The Role of Microbiota in Infant Health: From Early Life to Adulthood

From early life to adulthood, the microbiota play a crucial role in the health of the infant. The microbiota in early life are not only a key regulator of infant health but also associated with long-term health. Pregnancy to early life is the golden time for the establishment of the infant microbiota, which is affected by both environmental and genetic factors. Recently, there is an explosion of the studies on the role of microbiota in human diseases, but the application to disease or health is relatively limited because many aspects of human microbiota remain controversial, especially about the infant microbiota. Therefore, a critical and conclusive review is necessary to understand fully the relationship between the microbiota and the health of infant. In this article, we introduce in detail the role of microbiota in the infant from pregnancy to early life to long-term health. The main contents of this article include the relationship between the maternal microbiota and adverse pregnancy outcomes, the establishment of the neonatal microbiota during perinatal period and early life, the composition of the infant gut microbiota, the prediction of the microbiota for long-term health, and the future study directions of microbiota.

Betamethasone as a potential treatment for preterm birth associated with sterile intra-amniotic inflammation: a murine study

OBJECTIVES

Preterm birth remains the leading cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Preterm birth is preceded by spontaneous preterm labor, which is commonly associated with sterile intra-amniotic inflammation; yet, no approved treatment exists for this clinical condition. Corticosteroids are the standard of care to improve neonatal outcomes in women at risk of preterm birth. Herein, we first validated our model of alarmin-induced preterm birth. Next, we investigated whether treatment with betamethasone could prevent preterm birth resulting from sterile intra-amniotic inflammation in mice.

METHODS

Under ultrasound guidance, the first cohort of dams received an intra-amniotic injection of the alarmin high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1, n=10) or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, n=9) as controls. A second cohort of dams received HMGB1 intra-amniotically and were subcutaneously treated with betamethasone (n=15) or vehicle (n=15). Dams were observed until delivery, and perinatal outcomes were observed.

RESULTS

Intra-amniotic HMGB1 reduced gestational length (p=0.04), inducing preterm birth in 40% (4/10) of cases, of which 100% (4/4) were categorized as late preterm births. Importantly, treatment with betamethasone extended the gestational length (p=0.02), thereby reducing the rate of preterm birth by 26.6% (from 33.3% [5/15] to 6.7% [1/15]). Treatment with betamethasone did not worsen the rate of neonatal mortality induced by HMGB1 or alter weight gain in the first three weeks of life.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment with betamethasone prevents preterm birth induced by the alarmin HMGB1. This study supports the potential utility of betamethasone for treating women with sterile intra-amniotic inflammation.

Pathophysiological Implication of Pattern Recognition Receptors in Fetal Membranes Rupture: RAGE and NLRP Inflammasome

Preterm prelabor ruptures of fetal membranes (pPROM) are a pregnancy complication responsible for 30% of all preterm births. This pathology currently appears more as a consequence of early and uncontrolled process runaway activation, which is usually implicated in the physiologic rupture at term: inflammation. This phenomenon can be septic but also sterile. In this latter case, the inflammation depends on some specific molecules called “alarmins” or “damage-associated molecular patterns” (DAMPs) that are recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), leading to a microbial-free inflammatory response. Recent data clarify how this activation works and which receptor translates this inflammatory signaling into fetal membranes (FM) to manage a successful rupture after 37 weeks of gestation. In this context, this review focused on two PRRs: the receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) and the NLRP7 inflammasome.

Birth weight and intra-amniotic inflammatory and infection-related complications in pregnancies with preterm prelabor rupture of membranes: a retrospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To assess the association between the birth weight of newborns and microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity (MIAC) and/or intra-amniotic inflammation in pregnancies with preterm prelabor rupture of membranes.

METHODS

A total of 528 pregnancies with preterm prelabor rupture of membranes were included in this retrospective cohort study. Transabdominal amniocentesis to determine the presence of MIAC (through culturing and molecular biology methods) and intra-amniotic inflammation (according to amniotic fluid interleukin-6 level) was performed as part of standard clinical management. Based on the presence of MIAC and/or intra-amniotic inflammation, the participants were divided into four subgroups: with intra-amniotic infection (presence of both), with sterile IAI (intra-amniotic inflammation alone), with colonization (MIAC alone), and with negative amniotic fluid (absence of both). Birth weights of newborns are expressed as percentiles derived from INTERGROWTH-21st standards for (i) newborn birth weight and (ii) estimated fetal weight.

RESULTS

No differences in birth weights, expressed as percentiles derived from newborn weight standards (infection: median 52; sterile: median 54; colonization: median 50; negative amniotic fluid: median 51; p = .93) and estimated fetal weight standards (infection: median 47; sterile: median 51; colonization: median 47; negative amniotic fluid: median 53; p = .48) were found among the four subgroups. No differences in percentiles (derived from both standards) were found in the subset of participants who delivered within 72 h after rupture of membranes (newborn weight standard, p = .99; estimated fetal weight standard, p = .81).

CONCLUSIONS

No association was identified between the birth weight of newborns and the presence of intra-amniotic inflammatory and infection-related complications in pregnancies with preterm prelabor rupture of membranes.

RNA Sequencing Reveals Distinct Immune Responses in the Chorioamniotic Membranes of Women with Preterm Labor and Microbial or Sterile Intra-amniotic Inflammation

Preterm labor precedes premature birth, the leading cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Preterm labor can occur in the context of either microbe-associated intra-amniotic inflammation (i.e., intra-amniotic infection) or intra-amniotic inflammation in the absence of detectable microorganisms (i.e., sterile intra-amniotic inflammation). Both intra-amniotic infection and sterile intra-amniotic inflammation trigger local immune responses that have deleterious effects on fetal life. Yet, the extent of such immune responses in the fetal tissues surrounding the amniotic cavity (i.e., the chorioamniotic membranes) is poorly understood. By using RNA sequencing (RNA seq) as a discovery approach, we found that there were significant transcriptomic differences involving host response to pathogens in the chorioamniotic membranes of women with intra-amniotic infection compared to those from women without inflammation. In addition, the sterile or microbial nature of intra-amniotic inflammation was associated with distinct transcriptomic profiles in the chorioamniotic membranes. Moreover, the immune response in the chorioamniotic membranes of women with sterile intra-amniotic inflammation was milder in nature than that induced by microbes and involved the upregulation of alarmins and inflammasome-related molecules. Lastly, the presence of maternal and fetal inflammatory responses in the placenta was associated with the upregulation of immune processes in the chorioamniotic membranes. Collectively, these findings provide insight into the immune responses against microbes or alarmins that take place in the fetal tissues surrounding the amniotic cavity, shedding light on the immunobiology of preterm labor and birth.

Sneathia: an emerging pathogen in female reproductive disease and adverse perinatal outcomes

Sneathia is an emerging pathogen implicated in adverse reproductive and perinatal outcomes. Although scarce, recent data suggest that vaginally residing Sneathia becomes pathogenic following its ascension into the upper urogenital tract, amniotic fluid, placenta, and foetal membranes. The role of Sneathia in women's health and disease is generally underappreciated because the cultivation of these bacteria is limited by their complex nutritional requirements, slow growth patterns, and anaerobic nature. For this reason, molecular methods are typically required for the detection and differential diagnosis of Sneathia infections. Here, we review the laboratory methods used for the diagnosis of Sneathia infections, the molecular mechanisms underlying its virulence, and its sensitivity to antibiotics. We further review the evidence of Sneathia's contributions to the pathogenesis of bacterial vaginosis, chorioamnionitis, preterm prelabour rupture of membranes, spontaneous preterm labour, stillbirth, maternal and neonatal sepsis, HIV infection, and cervical cancer. Collectively, growing evidence indicates that Sneathia represents an important yet underappreciated pathogen affecting the development and progression of several adverse clinical conditions diagnosed in pregnant women and their neonates, as well as in non-pregnant women.

Intra-amniotic inflammatory complications in preterm prelabor rupture of membranes and long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes of infants: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To perform a systematic review of the literature available on the association between the presence of microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity (MIAC) and/or intra-amniotic inflammation and long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes of infants from pregnancies complicated by preterm prelabor rupture of membranes (PPROM).

METHODS

A literature search, from their earliest entries to May 2020, was performed by employing three electronic databases (Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus). The selection criteria were as follows: (1) singleton pregnancies with PPROM; (2) available information regarding MIAC and/or intra-amniotic inflammation; (3) long-term (at least one year of the corrected age) neurodevelopmental outcomes of respective infants.

RESULTS

The initial search identified 10,953 articles, of which 8 were selected for full-text reading; however, none were included in the review owing to the following reasons: (i) spontaneous preterm labor with intact membranes and/or indicated (iatrogenic) preterm delivery were included in the studies without providing separate data for PPROM (n = 5); (ii) long-term, at least one year of the corrected age, neurodevelopmental outcomes of infants were not assessed (n = 1); (iii) the presence of both the abovementioned reasons (n = 1); (iv) amniotic fluid was not assessed, and a long-term neurodevelopmental outcome was not evaluated (n = 1).

CONCLUSION

The literature search provides evidence of a knowledge gap in the association between the presence of MIAC and/or intra-amniotic inflammation and long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes in infants with PPROM.

Clinical chorioamnionitis at term X: microbiology, clinical signs, placental pathology, and neonatal bacteremia - implications for clinical care

OBJECTIVES

Clinical chorioamnionitis at term is considered the most common infection-related diagnosis in labor and delivery units worldwide. The syndrome affects 5-12% of all term pregnancies and is a leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality as well as neonatal death and sepsis. The objectives of this study were to determine the (1) amniotic fluid microbiology using cultivation and molecular microbiologic techniques; (2) diagnostic accuracy of the clinical criteria used to identify patients with intra-amniotic infection; (3) relationship between acute inflammatory lesions of the placenta (maternal and fetal inflammatory responses) and amniotic fluid microbiology and inflammatory markers; and (4) frequency of neonatal bacteremia.

METHODS

This retrospective cross-sectional study included 43 women with the diagnosis of clinical chorioamnionitis at term. The presence of microorganisms in the amniotic cavity was determined through the analysis of amniotic fluid samples by cultivation for aerobes, anaerobes, and genital mycoplasmas. A broad-range polymerase chain reaction coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry was also used to detect bacteria, select viruses, and fungi. Intra-amniotic inflammation was defined as an elevated amniotic fluid interleukin-6 (IL-6) concentration ≥2.6 ng/mL.

RESULTS

(1) Intra-amniotic infection (defined as the combination of microorganisms detected in amniotic fluid and an elevated IL-6 concentration) was present in 63% (27/43) of cases; (2) the most common microorganisms found in the amniotic fluid samples were Ureaplasma species, followed by Gardnerella vaginalis; (3) sterile intra-amniotic inflammation (elevated IL-6 in amniotic fluid but without detectable microorganisms) was present in 5% (2/43) of cases; (4) 26% of patients with the diagnosis of clinical chorioamnionitis had no evidence of intra-amniotic infection or intra-amniotic inflammation; (5) intra-amniotic infection was more common when the membranes were ruptured than when they were intact (78% [21/27] vs. 38% [6/16]; p=0.01); (6) the traditional criteria for the diagnosis of clinical chorioamnionitis had poor diagnostic performance in identifying proven intra-amniotic infection (overall accuracy, 40-58%); (7) neonatal bacteremia was diagnosed in 4.9% (2/41) of cases; and (8) a fetal inflammatory response defined as the presence of severe acute funisitis was observed in 33% (9/27) of cases.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical chorioamnionitis at term, a syndrome that can result from intra-amniotic infection, was diagnosed in approximately 63% of cases and sterile intra-amniotic inflammation in 5% of cases. However, a substantial number of patients had no evidence of intra-amniotic infection or intra-amniotic inflammation. Evidence of the fetal inflammatory response syndrome was frequently present, but microorganisms were detected in only 4.9% of cases based on cultures of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria in neonatal blood.

Cervical Gardnerella vaginalis in women with preterm prelabor rupture of membranes

Objective

To determine the association between microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity (MIAC) and/or intra-amniotic inflammation (IAI) and the cervical prevalence of Gardnerella vaginalis DNA in pregnancies with preterm prelabor rupture of membrane (PPROM).

Method

In total, 405 women with singleton pregnancies complicated with PPROM were included. Cervical fluid and amniotic fluid samples were collected at the time of admission. Bacterial and G. vaginalis DNA were assessed in the cervical fluid samples using quantitative PCR technique. Concentrations of interleukin-6 and MIAC were evaluated in the amniotic fluid samples. Loads of G. vaginalis DNA ≥ 1% of the total cervical bacterial DNA were used to define the cervical prevalence of G. vaginalis as abundant. Based on the MIAC and IAI, women were categorized into four groups: with intra-amniotic infection (both MIAC and IAI), with sterile IAI (IAI without MIAC), with MIAC without IAI, and without either MIAC or IAI.

Results

The presence of the abundant cervical G. vaginalis was related to MIAC (with: 65% vs. without: 44%; p = 0.0004) but not IAI (with: 52% vs. without: 48%; p = 0.70). Women with MIAC without IAI had the highest load of the cervical G. vaginalis DNA (median 2.0 × 10⁴ copies DNA/mL) and the highest presence of abundant cervical G. vaginalis (73%).

Conclusions

In women with PPROM, the presence of cervical G. vaginalis was associated with MIAC, mainly without the concurrent presence of IAI.

Intra-amniotic infection and sterile intra-amniotic inflammation are associated with elevated concentrations of cervical fluid interleukin-6 in women with spontaneous preterm labor with intact membranes

OBJECTIVE

To determine the concentration of interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the cervical fluid in women with spontaneous preterm labor with intact fetal membranes (PTL) complicated by intra-amniotic infection (the presence of both microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity and intra-amniotic inflammation), or sterile intra-amniotic inflammation (the presence of intra-amniotic inflammation alone).

METHODS

Eighty women with singleton pregnancies complicated by PTL between gestational ages 22 + 0 and 34 + 6 weeks were included in this retrospective cohort study. Samples of amniotic and cervical fluids were collected at the time of admission. Amniotic fluid samples were obtained via transabdominal amniocentesis, and cervical fluid was obtained using a Dacron polyester swab. Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity was diagnosed based on the combination of culture and molecular biology methods. The concentration of IL-6 in the amniotic and cervical fluids were measured using an automated electrochemiluminescence immunoassay method. Intra-amniotic inflammation was defined as an amniotic fluid IL-6 concentration ≥3000 pg/mL.

RESULTS

The presence of intra-amniotic infection and sterile inflammation was identified in 15% (12/80) and 26% (21/80) of the women, respectively. Women with intra-amniotic infection (median: 587 pg/mL; p = .01) and with sterile intra-amniotic inflammation (median: 590 pg/mL; p = .005) had higher concentrations of IL-6 in the cervical fluid than those without intra-amniotic inflammation (intra-amniotic infection: median 587 pg/mL vs. without inflammation, median: 136 pg/mL; p = .01; sterile intra-amniotic inflammation, median: 590 pg/mL vs. without inflammation, p = .005). No differences were found in the concentrations of IL-6 in the cervical fluid between women with intra-amniotic infection and sterile intra-amniotic inflammation (p = .81).

CONCLUSION

In pregnancies with PTL, both forms of intra-amniotic inflammation are associated with elevated concentrations of IL-6 in the cervical fluid.

RNA Sequencing Reveals Diverse Functions of Amniotic Fluid Neutrophils and Monocytes/Macrophages in Intra-Amniotic Infection

Intra-amniotic infection, the invasion of microbes into the amniotic cavity resulting in inflammation, is a clinical condition that can lead to adverse pregnancy outcomes for the mother and fetus as well as severe long-term neonatal morbidities. Despite much research focused on the consequences of intra-amniotic infection, there remains little knowledge about the innate immune cells that respond to invading microbes. We performed RNA-seq of sorted amniotic fluid neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages from women with intra-amniotic infection to determine the transcriptomic differences between these innate immune cells. Further, we sought to identify specific transcriptomic pathways that were significantly altered by the maternal or fetal origin of amniotic fluid neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages, the presence of a severe fetal inflammatory response, and pregnancy outcome (i.e., preterm or term delivery). We show that significant transcriptomic differences exist between amniotic fluid neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages from women with intra-amniotic infection, indicating the distinct roles these cells play. The transcriptome of amniotic fluid immune cells varies based on their maternal or fetal origin, and the significant transcriptomic differences between fetal and maternal monocytes/macrophages imply that those of fetal origin exhibit impaired functions. Notably, transcriptomic changes in amniotic fluid monocytes/macrophages suggest that these immune cells collaborate with neutrophils in the trafficking of fetal leukocytes throughout the umbilical cord (i.e., funisitis). Finally, amniotic fluid neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages from preterm deliveries display enhanced transcriptional activity compared to those from term deliveries, highlighting the protective role of these cells during this vulnerable period. Collectively, these findings demonstrate the underlying complexity of local innate immune responses in women with intra-amniotic infection and provide new insights into the functions of neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages in the amniotic cavity.

Pregnancy-specific transcriptional changes upon endotoxin exposure in mice

Objectives Pregnant women are more susceptible to certain infections; however, this increased susceptibility is not fully understood. Herein, systems biology approaches were utilized to elucidate how pregnancy modulates tissue-specific host responses to a bacterial product, endotoxin. Methods Pregnant and non-pregnant mice were injected with endotoxin or saline on 16.5 days post coitum (n=8-11 per group). The uterus, cervix, liver, adrenal gland, kidney, lung, and brain were collected 12 h after injection and transcriptomes were measured using microarrays. Heatmaps and principal component analysis were used for visualization. Differentially expressed genes between groups were assessed using linear models that included interaction terms to determine whether the effect of infection differed with pregnancy status. Pathway analysis was conducted to interpret gene expression changes. Results We report herein a multi-organ atlas of the transcript perturbations in pregnant and non-pregnant mice in response to endotoxin. Pregnancy strongly modified the host responses to endotoxin in the uterus, cervix, and liver. In contrast, pregnancy had a milder effect on the host response to endotoxin in the adrenal gland, lung, and kidney. However, pregnancy did not drastically affect the host response to endotoxin in the brain. Conclusions Pregnancy imprints organ-specific host immune responses upon endotoxin exposure. These findings provide insight into the host-response against microbes during pregnancy.

Cellular immune responses in amniotic fluid of women with a sonographic short cervix

Objectives A sonographic short cervix is one of the strongest predictors of preterm delivery. However, the cellular immune composition of amniotic fluid in women with a short cervix has not yet been described. Herein, we determined cellular and soluble immune responses in amniotic fluid from pregnant women with a mid-trimester asymptomatic short cervix. Methods Amniotic fluid samples (n=77) were collected from asymptomatic women with a cervical length between 15 and 25 mm (n=36, short cervix) or ≤15 mm (n=41, severely short cervix) diagnosed by ultrasound. Flow cytometry and multiplex measurement of cytokines/chemokines were performed. Results (1) The cellular immune composition of amniotic fluid did not differ between women with a severely short cervix (≤15 mm) and those with a short cervix 15-25 mm; (2) amniotic fluid concentrations of multiple cytokines/chemokines were higher in women with a severely short cervix (≤15 mm) than in those with a short cervix 15-25 mm; (3) the cellular immune composition of amniotic fluid did not differ between women with a severely short cervix (≤15 mm) who ultimately underwent preterm delivery and those who delivered at term; and (4) amniotic fluid concentrations of IL-2, but not other immune mediators, were increased in women with a severely short cervix (≤15 mm) who ultimately delivered preterm compared to those who delivered at term. Conclusions Women with a severely short cervix (≤15 mm) have increased concentrations of pro-inflammatory mediators in the amniotic cavity; yet, these do not translate to changes in the cellular immune response.

Amniotic fluid glucose level in PPROM pregnancies: a glance at the old friend

Introduction: To determine the amniotic fluid glucose levels in pregnancies complicated by preterm prelabor rupture of membranes (PPROM) based on the presence of microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity and/or intra-amniotic inflammation.Methods of Study: A total of 142 women with singleton pregnancies complicated by PPROM between gestational ages 24 + 0 and 36 + 6 weeks were included. Amniocentesis was performed at the time of admission. The assessments of microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity (using both cultivation and non-cultivation techniques) and intra-amniotic inflammation (amniotic fluid interleukin-6 levels ≥ 3000 pg/mL) were performed on all the women. Based on the presence of microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity and/or intra-amniotic inflammation, the women were further categorized into the subgroups: (i) intra-amniotic infection (the presence of both microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity and intra-amniotic inflammation); (ii) sterile intra-amniotic inflammation (the presence of intra-amniotic inflammation without microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity); (iii) colonization (the presence of microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity without intra-amniotic inflammation); and (iv) negative amniotic fluid (the absence of either microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity or intra-amniotic inflammation). Amniotic fluid glucose levels were assessed using enzymatic reference method with hexokinase.Results: There was a difference in the amniotic fluid glucose levels among the women with intra-amniotic infection, sterile intra-amniotic inflammation, colonization, and those with negative amniotic fluid (p < .0001). No difference was found in the amniotic fluid glucose levels between women with intra-amniotic infection and those with sterile intra-amniotic inflammation [infection: median 11.6 mg/dL (0.7 mmol/L) vs. sterile: median 6.3 mg/dL (0.4 mmol/L); p = .41] and between women with colonization and negative amniotic fluid [colonization: median 21.6 mg/dL (1.2 mmol/L) vs. negative: median 23.4 mg/dL (1.3 mmol/L; p = .67]. Women with intra-amniotic infection and sterile intra-amniotic inflammation had lower amniotic fluid glucose levels than women with colonization and with negative amniotic fluid in crude analysis as well as after adjustment for gestational age at sampling. Amniotic fluid glucose level of 10 mg/dL (0.56 mmol/L) was the optimal concentration for the identification of intra-amniotic inflammation in women with PPROM.Conclusions: The presence of intra-amniotic inflammation was associated with lower amniotic fluid glucose levels in singleton pregnancies complicated with PPROM. An amniotic fluid glucose level of 10 mg/dL (0.56 mmol/L) was the optimal concentration for the identification of intra-amniotic inflammation in PPROM pregnancies. In the absence of better amniotic fluid markers, amniotic glucose could be used as a marker of intra-amniotic inflammation, with very good specificity in PPROM pregnancies.

Maternal and fetal T cells in term pregnancy and preterm labor

Pregnancy is a state of immunological balance during which the mother and the developing fetus must tolerate each other while maintaining sufficient immunocompetence to ward off potential threats. The site of closest contact between the mother and fetus is the decidua, which represents the maternal-fetal interface. Many of the immune cell subsets present at the maternal-fetal interface have been well described; however, the importance of the maternal T cells in this compartment during late gestation and its complications, such as preterm labor and birth, has only recently been established. Moreover, pioneer and recent studies have indicated that fetal T cells are activated in different subsets of preterm labor and may elicit distinct inflammatory responses in the amniotic cavity, leading to preterm birth. In this review, we describe the established and proposed roles for maternal T cells at the maternal-fetal interface in normal term parturition, as well as the demonstrated contributions of such cells to the pathological process of preterm labor and birth. We also summarize the current knowledge of and proposed roles for fetal T cells in the pathophysiology of the preterm labor syndrome. It is our hope that this review provides a solid conceptual framework highlighting the importance of maternal and fetal T cells in late gestation and catalyzes new research questions that can further scientific understanding of these cells and their role in preterm labor and birth, the leading cause of neonatal mortality and morbidity worldwide.