Toward an Integrative Approach to the Study of Positive-Affect-Related Aggression

Research on aggression usually aims at gaining a better understanding of its more negative aspects, such as the role and effects of aversive social interactions, hostile cognitions, or negative affect. However, there are conditions under which an act of aggression can elicit a positive affective response, even among the most nonviolent of individuals. One might experience the "sweetness of revenge" on reacting aggressively to a betrayal or social rejection. A soldier may feel elated after "shooting to kill" in the name of the flag. There are many factors that contribute to the appeal of aggression, but despite growing interest in researching these phenomena, there is still no unitary framework that organizes existing theories and empirical findings and can be applied to a model to generate testable hypotheses. This article presents a narrative review of the literature on positive-affect-related forms of aggression and explores the role of aggression in eliciting positive affect across diverse social situations and relational contexts. An integrative model that unifies existing theories and findings is proposed, with the objective to inspire and inform future research.

Mental health disorders and recidivism among incarcerated adult offenders in a correctional facility in South Africa: A cluster analysis

The contribution of mental illness, substance use, and appetitive aggression to recidivism has significant policy and practice implications. Offenders with untreated mental illness have a higher recidivism rate and a greater number of criminogenic risk factors than those without mental illness. Previous research has demonstrated that the likelihood of appetitive aggression increases in violent contexts where individuals perpetrate aggressive acts. Using the Ecological Systems Theory, this study investigated the association between mental health disorders and recidivism among incarcerated adult offenders in South Africa, and the intervening role of appetitive aggression and substance use. Using a cross-sectional quantitative research design, a sample of 280 incarcerated male and female adult offenders aged 18-35 with no known psychiatric disorders were sampled at a correctional facility in South Africa. The re-incarceration rate, mental health disorders, substance use, and appetitive aggression symptomology were assessed using the Hopkins symptoms checklist, the CRAFFT measure of substance use, and the appetitive aggression scale. Findings indicate a 32.4% recidivism rate (n = 82). Cluster analysis indicated that the combination of anxiety, depression, substance use, and appetitive aggression increased the likelihood of recidivism. Appetitive aggression median differences between clusters 2 and 3 played a key role in distinguishing recidivism risk among recidivist and non-recidivist participants. Chi-square analysis highlighted group differences in education levels among the established clusters [x2 (3, n = 217) = 12.832, p = .005, which is < .05] as well as group differences in the type of criminal offence [x2 (3, n = 187) = 24.362, p = .000, which is < .05] and cluster membership. Combined factors that increase the likelihood of recidivism provide a typology for classifying offenders based on particular recidivism risk determinants, which offers insights for developing tailored interventions that address a combination of factors.

Reactive vs proactive aggression: A differential psychobiological profile? Conclusions derived from a systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Scholars have established subcategories of aggressive behavior in order to better understand this construct. Specifically, a classification based on motivational underpinnings makes it possible to differentiate between reactive and proactive aggression. Whereas reactive aggression is characterized by emotional lability, which means it is prone to impulsive reactions after provocation, proactive aggression is driven by low emotionality and high levels of instrumentality to obtain benefits. Some authors have conceived these two types as having a dichotomous nature, but others argue against this conceptualization, considering a complementary model more suitable. Hence, neuroscientific research might help to clarify discussions about their nature because biological markers do not present the same biases as psychological instruments.

AIM

The main objective of this study was to carry out a systematic review of studies that assess underlying biological markers (e.g., genes, brain, psychophysiological, and hormonal) of reactive and proactive aggression.

METHODS

To carry out this review, we followed PRISMA quality criteria for reviews, using five digital databases complemented by hand-searching.

RESULTS

The reading of 3993 abstracts led to the final inclusion of 157 papers that met all the inclusion criteria. The studies included allow us to conclude that heritability accounted for approximately 45% of the explained variance in both types of aggression, with 60% shared by both, especially, for overt and physical expression forms, and 10% specific to each type. Regarding allelic risk factors, whereas low functioning variants affecting serotonin transport and monoaminoxidase increased the risk of reactive aggression, high functioning variants were associated with proactive aggression. Furthermore, brain analysis revealed an overlap between the two types of aggression and alterations in the volume of the amygdala and temporal cortex. Moreover, high activation of the medial prefrontal cortex (PFC) facilitated proneness to both types of aggression equally. Whereas stimulation of the right ventrolateral (VLPFC) and dorsolateral (DLPFC) reduced proneness to aggression, inhibition of the left DLPFC increased it. Finally, psychophysiological and hormonal correlates in general did not clearly differentiate between the two types because they were equally related to each type (e.g., low basal cortisol and vagal variability in response to acute stress) CONCLUSIONS: This study reinforces the complementary model of both types of aggression instead of a dichotomous model. Additionally, this review also offers background about several treatments (i.e., pharmacological, non-invasive brain techniques…) to reduce aggression proneness.

Working memory guidance of visual attention to threat in offenders

Aggression and trait anger have been linked to attentional biases toward angry faces and attribution of hostile intent in ambiguous social situations. Memory and emotion play a crucial role in social-cognitive models of aggression but their mechanisms of influence are not fully understood. Combining a memory task and a visual search task, this study investigated the guidance of attention allocation toward naturalistic face targets during visual search by visual working memory (WM) templates in 113 participants who self-reported having served a custodial sentence. Searches were faster when angry faces were held in working memory regardless of the emotional valence of the visual search target. Higher aggression and trait anger predicted increased working memory modulated attentional bias. These results are consistent with the Social-Information Processing model, demonstrating that internal representations bias attention allocation to threat and that the bias is linked to aggression and trait anger.

Childhood Trauma, the Combination of MAO-A and COMT Genetic Polymorphisms and the Joy of Being Aggressive in Forensic Psychiatric Patients

Aggression and violent offenses are common amongst forensic psychiatric patients. Notably, research distinguishes two motivationally distinct dimension of aggression–instrumental and reactive aggression. Instrumental aggression comprises of appetitive, goal-directed aggressive acts, whereas reactive aggression consists of affective, defensive violence with both their biological basis remaining largely unknown. Childhood trauma and functional genetic polymorphisms in catecholamines converting enzymes, such as mono-amino-oxidase A (MAO-A) and catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT) have been suggested to augment an aggressive behavioral response in adulthood. However, it warrants clarification if these factors influence one or both types of aggression. Furthermore, it remains elusive, if having a combination of unfavorable enzyme genotypes and childhood maltreatment further increases violent behavior. Hence, we set out to address these questions in the current study. First, analysis revealed an overall marginally increased frequency of the unfavorable MAO-A genotype in the test population. Second, each gene polymorphisms together with a traumatic childhood significantly increased the AFAS (Appetitive and Facilitative Aggression Scale) scores for both reactive and appetitive aggression. Third, having a combination of both disadvantageous genotypes and a negative childhood served as a minor positive predictor for increased reactive aggression, but had a strong influence on the joy of being aggressive.

DNA methylation and psychotherapy response in trauma-exposed men with appetitive aggression

Exposure to violence can lead to appetitive aggression (AA), the positive feeling and fascination associated with violence, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), characterised by hyperarousal, reexperience and feelings of ongoing threat. Psychotherapeutic interventions may act via DNA methylation, an environmentally sensitive epigenetic mechanism that can influence gene expression. We investigated epigenetic signatures of psychotherapy for PTSD and AA symptoms in South African men with chronic trauma exposure. Participants were assigned to one of three groups: narrative exposure therapy for forensic offender rehabilitation (FORNET), cognitive behavioural therapy or waiting list control (n = 9-10/group). Participants provided saliva and completed the Appetitive Aggression Scale and PTSD Symptom Severity Index at baseline, 8-month and 16-month follow-up. The relationship, over time, between methylation in 22 gene promoter region sites, symptom scores, and treatment was assessed using linear mixed models. Compared to baseline, PTSD and AA symptom severity were significantly reduced at 8 and 16 months, respectively, in the FORNET group. Increased methylation of genes implicated in dopaminergic neurotransmission (NR4A2) and synaptic plasticity (AUTS2) was associated with reduced PTSD symptom severity in participants receiving FORNET. Analyses across participants revealed a proportional relationship between AA and methylation of TFAM, a gene involved in mitochondrial biosynthesis.

A combination of combat experience, early abduction, and severe traumatization fuels appetitive aggression and violence among abductees of rebel war in Northern Uganda

Individuals who perpetrate violence may likely perceive violence as appealing and infliction of violence to derive pleasure is termed as appetitive aggression. Individuals who were abducted as children into an armed group often experience a higher number of traumatic event types, that is traumatic load and are usually socialized in a violence-endorsing environment. This study aims to investigate the interaction between age at initial abduction with that of traumatic load, and their influence on appetitive aggression along with perpetration of violent acts by former members of an armed rebel group of both sexes. Semi-structured interviews were conducted among a target group of formerly abducted rebel-war survivors (including participants with and without combat experience) from Northern Uganda. Participants included 596 women and 570 men with N =  1,166 (M_age   =  32.58, SD_age   =  9.76, range: 18-80 years). We conducted robust linear regression models to investigate the influence of age at initial abduction, traumatic load, combat experience, and biological sex on appetitive aggression as well as their perpetrated violent acts. Our study shows, appetitive aggression and the number of perpetrated violent acts were specifically increased in individuals who were abducted young, experienced several traumatic events in their lifetime, and with previous combat experience. For perpetrated violence men showed increased levels whereas for appetitive aggression the association was independent of biological sex. Therefore, early abducted individuals with a higher traumatic load, who have combat experience, need to be given special intervention to prevent any further violence.

Emotional and Cognitive Responses to Theatrical Representations of Aggressive Behavior

Representation of human conflict is central to theater performance. In our study, we have used self-reported measures of emotional experience and a word recall task, in order to assess the effects of theatrical representations of violence. Forty participants were randomly assigned to the role of performer or spectator, in either a realistic representation of a script or in a version that recollected the same actions of the script in a series of intertwined monologs. The script represented an aggressive interaction between two work colleagues. Our results show both statistically significant differences in the levels of depression and positive emotions reported after enacting the script, as well as differences in the performance on the word recall task containing aggressive related and non-related stimuli. The results point to stronger effects for performing theatrical representations of violent actions, as compared to recollecting or watching such actions. The fact that actors experienced higher positive emotions is in line with the two-pedal model of aggressive behavior. This model suggests that negative emotions toward aggressive behavior might change to positive emotions due to the repetition in performing violent behaviors, as a key for the transition from reactive aggression to appetitive aggression. Other implications for the study of aggression in theatrical representations are discussed.

Trauma, Aggression, and Post Conflict Perpetration of Community Violence in Female Former Child Soldiers-A Study in Eastern DR Congo

OBJECTIVE

Former combatants are exposed to multiple traumatic stressors during conflict situations and usually participate in perpetration of violence. Ongoing perpetration of violence in post conflict areas, linked to mental health problems and appetitive aggression, destabilises peace keeping efforts. The aim of this study is to investigate lifetime exposure to violence and the relationship between this exposure and mental health and current violent behaviour in a sample of female former child soldiers with a history of perpetration of violence in Eastern DR Congo.

METHODS

98 female former child soldiers who had been abducted and forcibly recruited during the M23 insurgency (2012-2014) were assessed for lifetime exposure to trauma including perpetration of violence, clinical outcomes (PTSD and appetitive aggression), and current violent behaviour.

RESULTS

Female former child soldiers had been exposed to extremely high levels of trauma including perpetration of violence and presented with high levels of mental health problems. Linear regression models showed that current violent behaviour was predicted by both PTSD and appetitive aggression.

CONCLUSIONS

Trauma exposure predicts ongoing perpetration of violence post conflict via the resulting mental health problems. The findings imply that if PTSD and appetitive aggression symptoms are successfully treated, ongoing violent behaviour in the community post conflict will also decrease.

Correlates of Aggression in Personality Disorders: an Update

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review article aims at giving an update on studies investigating correlates of aggression in personality disorders during the last 5 years.

RECENT FINDINGS

Most data refer to borderline personality disorder (BPD) and antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). In BPD, emotion dysregulation, hypersensitivity to interpersonal rejection/threat, increased rumination, increased negative urgency, aggression-related knowledge structures, and invalidation were either corroborated or emerged as psychological correlates of aggression, while reduced ambiguity sensitivity, hyposensitivity to interpersonal threat, and reduced mindfulness were associated with aggression in ASPD. Neurobiologically, alterations of the monoaminooxidase-A-, the oxytocinergic-, and the prefrontal-limbic-system as well as increases of the thyroid hormone T3, γ-aminobutyric acid and several inflammatory markers were associated with increased aggression across various personality disorders. Our understanding of correlates of aggression in personality disorders has increased over the last 5 years. More efforts in improving the conceptualization of personality disorders and aggression are needed to develop innovative treatments for those affected.