Methods to Assess Energy Expenditure of Resistance Exercise: A Systematic Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Nutrition guidance for athletes must consider a range of variables to effectively support individuals in meeting energy and nutrient needs. Resistance exercise is a widely adopted training method in athlete preparation and rehabilitation and therefore is one such variable that will influence nutrition guidance. Given its prominence, the capacity to meaningfully quantify resistance exercise energy expenditure will assist practitioners and researchers in providing nutrition guidance. However, the significant contribution of anaerobic metabolism makes quantifying energy expenditure of resistance exercise challenging.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this scoping review was to investigate the methods used to assess resistance exercise energy expenditure.

METHODS

A literature search of Medline, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL and Web of Science identified studies that included an assessment of resistance exercise energy expenditure. Quality appraisal of included studies was performed using the Rosendal Scale.

RESULTS

A total of 19,867 studies were identified, with 166 included after screening. Methods to assess energy expenditure included indirect calorimetry (n = 136), blood lactate analysis (n = 25), wearable monitors (n = 31) and metabolic equivalents (n = 4). Post-exercise energy expenditure was measured in 76 studies. The reported energy expenditure values varied widely between studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Indirect calorimetry is widely used to estimate energy expenditure. However, given its limitations in quantifying glycolytic contribution, indirect calorimetry during and immediately following exercise combined with measures of blood lactate are likely required to better quantify total energy expenditure. Due to the cumbersome equipment and technical expertise required, though, along with the physical restrictions the equipment places on participants performing particular resistance exercises, indirect calorimetry is likely impractical for use outside of the laboratory setting, where metabolic equivalents may be a more appropriate method.

Effects of individualized low-intensity mat Pilates on aerobic capacity and recovery ability in adults

PURPOSE

Although Pilates is one of the most widely performed physical activities in Korea, no physiological evidence is available regarding its energy recovery ability. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of individualized low-intensity mat Pilates on aerobic capacity and recovery ability in adults.

METHODS

Ten physically active women participated in this study. Pre- and post-lactate threshold (LT) tests were performed to compare jogging/running speeds (S; km·h-1) and heart rates (HR; beats·min-1) at 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 mmol·L-1 lactate concentrations (La-). Subjects performed 1 h of low-intensity mat Pilates twice a week for four weeks. During these sessions, exercise intensity was determined based on the heart rate corresponding to individualized low-inten- sity recovery zone 1, which was estimated using a mathematical model of log-log LT1 (from pre-test; < 2 mmol·L-1). All physiological variables were measured before and after exercise intervention.

RESULTS

Significant differences were found in body mass increase and body mass index increase between the pre- and post-tests (p = 0.016 and p = 0.014, respectively, effect size (ES) = 0.13; ES = -0.11). Levels of La- between 1.0 and 1.4 m·s-1 in the post-LT test tended to decrease, although such decrease was not significantly different. Moderate to high positive correlations between differences (Δ) of S and ΔHR at 1.5, 3.0, and 4.0 mmol·L-1La- were observed.

CONCLUSION

Positive correlations between ΔS and ΔHR at certain La- levels indicate that low-intensity mat Pilates based on heart rate corresponding to individualized recovery zone 1 might be recommended for physically active adults.

Comparision of Low and High Volume of Resistance Training on Body Fat and Blood Biomarkers in Untrained Older Women: A Randomized Clinical Trial

ABSTRACT

Cunha, PM, Tomeleri, CM, Nascimento, MA, Mayhew, JL, Fungari, E, Cyrino, LT, Barbosa, DS, Venturini, D, and Cyrino, ES. Comparision of low and high volume of resistance training on body fat and blood biomarkers in untrained older women: a randomized clinical trial. J Strength Cond Res 35(1): 1-8, 2021-The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of resistance training (RT) performed with 2 different volumes on body fat and blood biomarkers in untrained older women. Sixty-five physically independent older women (≥60 years) were randomly assigned to one of 3 groups: low-volume (LV) training group, high-volume (HV) training group, and a control group. Both training groups performed RT for 12 weeks, using 8 exercises of 10-15 repetitions maximum for each exercise. The low-volume group performed only a single set per exercise, whereas the HV group performed 3 sets. Anthropometric, body fat (%), trunk fat, triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, very LDL-c (VLDL-c), glucose (GLU), C-reactive protein (CRP), and composite Z-score were measured. The HV group obtained greater improvements compared with the LV group (p < 0.05) for TG (LV = -10.5% vs. HV = -16.6%), VLDL-c (LV = -6.5% vs. HV = -14.8%), GLU (LV = -4.7% vs. HV = -11.1%), CRP (LV = -13.2% vs. HV = -30.8%), % body fat (LV = -2.4% vs. HV = -6.1%), and composite Z-score (LV = -0.13 ± 0.30 vs. HV = -0.57 ± 0.29). Trunk fat was reduced (p < 0.05) only in the HV group (-6.8%). We conclude that RT performed in higher volume seems to be the most appropriate strategy to reduce body fat (%), trunk fat, improve blood biomarkers, and reduce composite Z-score in older women.

Cardiorespiratory responses to acute bouts of high-intensity functional training and traditional exercise in physically active adults

BACKGROUND

High-intensity functional training is a popular form of exercise, but little is known about how it compares to more traditional exercise patterns.

METHODS

Thirty healthy, physically active adults (15 males, 15 females) performed a high-intensity functional training workout (HIFT) and a traditional workout (TRAD). Cardiorespiratory responses were measured during and for 15 min after each workout.

RESULTS

Peak heart rate (males: 187 ± 7 vs. 171 ± 10 bpm, p < .001; females: 191 ± 9 vs. 175 ± 6 bpm, p < .001), peak VO2 (males: 3.80 ± 0.58 vs. 3.26 ± 0.60 L/min, p < .001; females: 2.65 ± 0.26 vs. 2.36 ± 0.21, p < .001), and average 15 min recovery VO2 (males: 1.15 ± 0.20 vs. 0.99 ± 0.17 L/min, p < .001; females: 0.77 ± 0.10 vs. 0.71 ± 0.07 L/min, p = .019) were significantly higher in HIFT vs. TRAD. Aerobic energy expenditure was significantly higher in HIFT compared to TRAD in males (9.01 ± 1.43 vs. 8.53 ± 1.38 kcal/min, p = .002) but was not significantly different between the two workouts in females (6.04 ± 0.53 vs. 5.97 ± 0.50 kcal/min, p = .395). Post-exercise systolic blood pressure (SBP) was significantly higher than pre-exercise SBP following both HIFT (males: 124 ± 13 mmHg pre to 154 ± 28 mmHg post, p < .001; females: 110 ± 7 mmHg pre to 140 ± 15 mmHg post, p < .001) and TRAD (males: 124 ± 13 mmHg pre to 142 ± 16 mmHg post, p = .002; females: 112 ± 8 mmHg pre to 123 ± 10 mmHg post, p = .002), however, HIFT led to a greater increase compared to TRAD in females (p = .001). Post-exercise diastolic blood pressure (DBP) was significantly lower than pre-exercise DBP following both HIFT (males: 77 ± 9 mmHg pre to 64 ± 6 mmHg post, p < .001; females: 71 ± 8 mmHg pre to 64 ± 7 mmHg post, p = .011) and TRAD (males: 82 ± 7 mmHg pre to 72 ± 7 mmHg post, p < .001; females: 73 ± 8 mmHg pre to 65 ± 8 mmHg post, p < .001). Mean arterial blood pressure was unchanged following both workouts.

CONCLUSIONS

High-intensity functional training may be an effective form of exercise for caloric expenditure and may elicit greater cardiorespiratory stress than traditional exercise.

Practical Recommendations Relevant to the Use of Resistance Training for COVID-19 Survivors

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has emerged at the end of 2019 and caused a global pandemic. The disease predominantly affects the respiratory system; however, there is evidence that it is a multisystem disease that also impacts the cardiovascular system. Although the long-term consequences of COVID-19 are not well-known, evidence from similar diseases alerts for the possibility of long-term impaired physical function and reduced quality of life, especially in those requiring critical care. Therefore, rehabilitation strategies are needed to improve outcomes in COVID-19 survivors. Among the possible strategies, resistance training (RT) might be particularly interesting, since it has been shown to increase functional capacity both in acute and chronic respiratory conditions and in cardiac patients. The present article aims to propose evidence-based and practical suggestions for RT prescription for people who have been diagnosed with COVID-19 with a special focus on immune, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems. Based on the current literature, we present RT as a possible safe and feasible activity that can be time-efficient and easy to be implemented in different settings.

What is the exercise intensity of Pilates? An analysis of the energy expenditure, blood lactate, and intensity of apparatus and mat Pilates sessions

BACKGROUND

Pilates is a form of exercise commonly used in rehabilitation settings that improves muscular fitness and flexibility. However, it is unknown whether the energy expenditure (EE) from Pilates sessions could also lead to the intensity suggested by health organizations to improve physical fitness. This study aimed to quantify and compare the intensity and the EE of two different Pilates sessions (mat and apparatus).

METHODS

18 healthy females (age: 22 ± 3 years; height: 1.6 ± 0.1m; body mass: 61.0 ± 10.0 kg; body mass index: 21 ± 3 kg/m²) performed two different sessions. Each session involved the performance of 15 exercises. Oxygen consumption (V˙O₂) was measured continuously and then converted to EE in Kcal/min. Blood lactate, heart rate (HR), and blood pressure (BP) were also measured. A repeated measures two-way ANOVA (time X group) determined differences between sessions. Bonferroni's post hoc analysis was used to identify significant differences between measures.

RESULTS

The Reformer apparatus and Mat sessions presented an EE of 2.59 ± 0.53 and 1.93 ± 0.26 kcal/min, respectively. V˙O₂ was higher for the Reformer session (8.67 ± 1.15 ml/kg/min) when compared to Mat (6.44 ± 0.73 ml/kg/min). There was no significant increase in blood lactate, HR, and BP for either session above resting values.

CONCLUSION

The Pilates sessions analyzed in this study elicit low cardiovascular stress, leading to low EE levels. However, a typical session performed on the Reformer apparatus presented a higher EE, V˙O_2, and HR compared to the Mat Pilates session.

Resistance Training Safety during and after the SARS-Cov-2 Outbreak: Practical Recommendations

In December of 2019, there was an outbreak of a severe acute respiratory syndrome caused by the coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19) in China. The virus rapidly spread into the whole world causing an unprecedented pandemic and forcing governments to impose a global quarantine, entering an extreme unknown situation. The organizational consequences of quarantine/isolation are absence of organized training and competition, lack of communication among athletes and coaches, inability to move freely, lack of adequate sunlight exposure, and inappropriate training conditions. The reduction of mobility imposed to contain the advance of the SARS-Cov-2 pandemic can negatively affect the physical condition and health of individuals leading to muscle atrophy, progressive loss of muscle strength, and reductions in neuromuscular and mechanical capacities. Resistance training (RT) might be an effective tool to counteract these adverse consequences. RT is considered an essential part of an exercise program due to its numerous health and athletic benefits. However, in the face of the SARS-Cov-2 outbreak, many people might be concerned with safety issues regarding its practice, especially in indoor exercise facilities, such as gyms and fitness centers. These concerns might be associated with RT impact in the immune system, respiratory changes, and contamination due to equipment sharing and agglomeration. In this current opinion article, we provide insights to address these issues to facilitate the return of RT practices under the new logistical and health challenges. We understand that RT can be adapted to allow its performance with measures adopted to control coronavirus outbreak such that the benefits would largely overcome the potential risks. The article provides some practical information to help on its implementation.

A Single Dose of Oral ATP Supplementation Improves Performance and Physiological Response During Lower Body Resistance Exercise in Recreational Resistance-Trained Males

Freitas, MC, Cholewa, JM, Gerosa-Neto, J, Gonçalves, DC, Caperuto, EC, Lira, FS, and Rossi, FE. A single dose of oral ATP supplementation improves performance and physiological response during lower body resistance exercise in recreational resistance-trained males. J Strength Cond Res 33(12): 3345-3352, 2019-The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effect of adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) supplementation on performance and physiological responses during resistance exercise in recreationally resistance-trained males. Eleven men (age = 27.5 ± 5.5 years, mass = 83.4 ± 9.8 kg, height = 182 ± 0.04 cm) completed 2 randomized, double-blind trials: ATP supplement condition (ATP = 400 mg) or a placebo condition. Thirty minutes after supplement consumption, subjects performed 4 sets of half-squats until momentary muscular failure at 80% of the 1 repetition maximum with 2 minutes of recovery between sets. The total number of repetitions, blood pressure, heart rate, blood lactate, and oxygen consumption were evaluated. The total weight lifted were higher for the ATP condition compared with placebo (Placebo = 3,995.7 ± 1,137.8, ATP = 4,967.4 ± 1,497.9 kg; p = 0.005). Heart rate was higher at set-4 for ATP compared with placebo (p < 0.001) and oxygen consumption during exercise was greater for ATP (p = 0.021). There were no differences between conditions for lactate and blood pressure. In summary, a single oral dose of ATP supplementation improved lower-body resistance training performance and energy expenditure in recreational resistance-trained males.

Acute low- compared to high-load resistance training to failure results in greater energy expenditure during exercise in healthy young men

The objective of the present study was to verify the energy expenditure (EE), energy system contributions and autonomic control during and after an acute low-load or high-load resistance training (RT) protocol to momentary failure (MF) in young adults. Eleven young men (22 ± 3 yrs, 71.8 ± 7.7 kg; 1.75 ± 0.06 m) underwent a randomized crossover design of three knee extension acute protocols: a low-load RT [30% of their maximal strength (1RM); RT30] or a high-load RT (80% of 1RM; RT80) protocol, with all sets being performed to MF; or a control session (Control) without exercise. Participants were measured for EE, energy system contributions, and cardiac autonomic control before, during, and after each exercise session. Exercise EE was significantly higher for RT30 as compared to RT80. Furthermore, post measurements of blood lactate levels and the anaerobic lactic system contribution were significantly greater for RT30 as compared to RT80. In addition, parasympathetic restoration was lower for RT30 as compared to RT80. In conclusion, a low-load (30% 1RM) RT session produced higher EE during exercise than a high-load (80% 1RM) RT session to MF, and may be a good option for fitness professionals, exercise physiologists, and practitioners when choosing the optimal RT protocol that provides more EE, especially for those who want or need to lose weight.

Can intensity in strength training change caloric expenditure? Systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Strength training (ST) is considered an important strategy for maintaining body weight, as it promotes an increase in total energy expenditure (EE). However, the combination and manipulation of variables (intensity and volume) allow for different training adaptations. However, it remains unclear as to what is the most important variable between volume or intensity for example number of sets, repetitions, or total load for maximizing EE during ST. Several studies have analyzed the EE response in ST, but still unclear the variable is able to increase EE in the ST.

OBJECTIVE

This review aimed to investigate the effect of ST on EE in adults using a systematic literature review and subsequent meta-analysis.

METHODS

The search was performed on the electronic databases using the following keywords: strength training (resistance training; strength training; strength training method) and energy expenditure (energy metabolism; energy expenditure; caloric expenditure, caloric cost) with 'AND' and 'OR' combination. Manual searches of references were also conducted for additional relevant studies. After evaluating the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the selected studies were analysed according to strength training methods and the training variables used to measure EE.

RESULTS

We identified two ST methods from the literature review: circuit training (CT) and traditional training (TT). Meta-analysis showed a significant effect on EE increase, which favour TT when compared with CT [-0·99 (95%CI: -1·96, -0·02), P<0·01] with I² of 89% (P<0·01). After adjusting for bias risk, no significant differences were found in EE associated with intensity [-0·40, 95% CI (0·98, 0·18), P = 0·18).

CONCLUSION

The present review and meta-analysis indicated that the intensity of exercise does not seem to be associated with an increase of EE in ST.

Is an Energy Surplus Required to Maximize Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy Associated With Resistance Training

Resistance training is commonly prescribed to enhance strength/power qualities and is achieved via improved neuromuscular recruitment, fiber type transition, and/ or skeletal muscle hypertrophy. The rate and amount of muscle hypertrophy associated with resistance training is influenced by a wide array of variables including the training program, plus training experience, gender, genetic predisposition, and nutritional status of the individual. Various dietary interventions have been proposed to influence muscle hypertrophy, including manipulation of protein intake, specific supplement prescription, and creation of an energy surplus. While recent research has provided significant insight into optimization of dietary protein intake and application of evidence based supplements, the specific energy surplus required to facilitate muscle hypertrophy is unknown. However, there is clear evidence of an anabolic stimulus possible from an energy surplus, even independent of resistance training. Common textbook recommendations are often based solely on the assumed energy stored within the tissue being assimilated. Unfortunately, such guidance likely fails to account for other energetically expensive processes associated with muscle hypertrophy, the acute metabolic adjustments that occur in response to an energy surplus, or individual nuances like training experience and energy status of the individual. Given the ambiguous nature of these calculations, it is not surprising to see broad ranging guidance on energy needs. These estimates have never been validated in a resistance training population to confirm the "sweet spot" for an energy surplus that facilitates optimal rates of muscle gain relative to fat mass. This review not only addresses the influence of an energy surplus on resistance training outcomes, but also explores other pertinent issues, including "how much should energy intake be increased," "where should this extra energy come from," and "when should this extra energy be consumed." Several gaps in the literature are identified, with the hope this will stimulate further research interest in this area. Having a broader appreciation of these issues will assist practitioners in the establishment of dietary strategies that facilitate resistance training adaptations while also addressing other important nutrition related issues such as optimization of fuelling and recovery goals. Practical issues like the management of satiety when attempting to increase energy intake are also addressed.

Carbohydrate restriction: Friend or foe of resistance-based exercise performance?

It is commonly accepted that adequate carbohydrate availability is necessary for optimal endurance performance. However, for strength- and physique-based athletes, sports nutrition research and recommendations have focused on protein ingestion, with far less attention given to carbohydrates. Varying resistance exercise protocols, such as differences in intensity, volume, and intraset rest prescriptions between strength-training and physique-training goals elicit different metabolic responses, which may necessitate different carbohydrate needs. The results of several acute and chronic training studies suggest that although severe carbohydrate restriction may not impair strength adaptations during a resistance training program, consuming an adequate amount of carbohydrate in the days leading up to testing may enhance maximal strength and strength-endurance performance. Although several molecular studies demonstrate no additive increases in postexercise mammalian target of rapamycin 1 phosphorylation with carbohydrate and protein compared with protein ingestion alone, the effects of chronic resistance training with carbohydrate restriction on muscle hypertrophy are conflicting and require further research to determine a minimal carbohydrate threshold necessary to optimize muscle hypertrophy. This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding carbohydrate availability and resistance training outcomes and poses new research questions that will better help guide carbohydrate recommendations for strength and physique athletes. In addition, given that success in physique sports is based on subjective appearance, and not objective physical performance, we also review the effects of subchronic carbohydrate ingestion during contest preparation on aesthetic appearance.

The effects of resistance training volume on osteosarcopenic obesity in older women

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of resistance training (RT) performed with 1 or 3 sets per exercise on osteosarcopenic obesity (OSO) syndrome parameters in older women. Sixty-two older women (68.0 ± 4.3 years, 26.8 ± 4.4 kg/m2) participated in a 12-week RT program. Participants were randomly assigned into one of the three groups: two training groups that performed either 1 set (G1S, n = 21) or 3 sets (G3S, n = 20) 3 times weekly, or a control group (CG, n = 21). Body composition was assessed by dual X-ray absorptiometry, strength was evaluated by 1 repetition maximum testing. The G3S presented significantly higher strength changes than G1S. The changes for percentage of body fat were higher for G3S compared to G1S. There was no difference in skeletal muscle mass between G3S and G1S, however both training groups displayed greater increases in this outcome compared to CG. There was no effect for bone mineral density. The overall analysis indicated higher (P < 0.05) positive changes for G3S than G1S (composed Z-score: G3S = 0.62 ± 0.40; G1S = 0.11 ± 0.48). The results suggest that a 12-week RT period is effective to improve the risk factors of OSO, and that 3 sets induce higher improvements than a single set.

Loads and movement speed affect energy expenditure during circuit resistance exercise

Circuit resistance training (CT) constitutes a high-intensity interval program commonly used to target weight loss; however, the loads and exercise patterns that maximize energy expenditure (EE) remain undetermined. We examined differences in EE among CT protocols using varying loads and contraction speeds in recreationally trained males and females. Seven males (age, 21.1 ± 0.5 years) and 8 females (age, 20.0 ± 0.9 years) performed 3 randomized CT protocols incorporating 3 circuits using heavy-load (80% 1-repetition maximum (1RM)) explosive (HLEC), heavy-load, controlled (2 s) (HLCC), and moderate-load (50% 1RM) explosive contractions (MLEC). Expired air was collected continuously before, during, and after exercise. Blood lactate was collected at rest, immediately postexercise, and 5 min postexercise. No significant differences were detected for resting EE; however, there was a significant difference among conditions during exercise (p = 0.034, η_p² = 0.229). Post hoc analysis revealed that MLEC produced significantly higher EE than HLCC, but not HLEC (p = 0.023). There was a significant difference among conditions for rate of EE during exercise (p = 0.003, η_p² = 0.361). Post hoc analysis revealed that HLEC produced a significantly higher EE rate than HLCC (p = 0.012) or MLEC (p = 0.001). A condition × sex interaction was seen for blood lactate changes (η_p² = 0.249; p = 0.024). Females produced significantly greater change for MLEC than HLEC (p = 0.011), while males showed no significant differences. Our results favor CT using MLEC for a higher EE during a full workout; however, the rate of EE was highest when using HLEC.