1
|
Steylaerts B, Dierckx E, Schotte C. Relationships Between DSM-5 Personality Disorders and Early Maladaptive Schemas from the Perspective of Dimensional and Categorical Comorbidity. COGNITIVE THERAPY AND RESEARCH 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s10608-023-10349-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
|
2
|
Guhn A, Schön D, Zische Y, Sterzer P, Köhler S. Interpersonal Change During Inpatient CBASP Treatment: Focus on Group Therapy. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:620037. [PMID: 33716820 PMCID: PMC7952983 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.620037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP) has been tailored specifically to the demands of patients with persistent depressive disorder (PDD). According to the CBASP model, PDD patients are supposed to live perceptually disconnected from their social environment, which consequently maintains depression. While initially developed as an individual treatment modality, the adaptation for group therapy yields an important interpersonal space. However, little is known about the specific factors that contribute to patients' benefit from the CBASP group modality. Methods: The analyzed sample comprised N = 87 PDD patients who completed a 12 week multimodal inpatient treatment including 2 weekly CBASP-specific individual and group sessions, respectively, as well as CBASP-unspecific medical contacts, pharmacotherapy and complementary therapies. Group sessions included trainings in situational analysis and interpersonal skills. Interpersonal change over therapy was examined based on the patients' self-perceived interpersonal problems (IIP) and the impact messages as perceived by their individual therapists (IMI). Pre and post-treatment data were compared using within-sample t-tests. Additionally, patients evaluated CBASP group therapy on a feedback form. They were invited to reflect on individual benefits and its helpful and unhelpful aspects. Qualitative content analysis with inductive category development was used to analyze feedback. Inter-rater reliability was computed to confirm categories before summarizing the frequencies of reported factors. Results: Self-perceived interpersonal distress significantly decreased over therapy. Patients reported reduced interpersonal problems and therapists reported more friendly and dominant impact messages. Interestingly, patients who showed a significant depressive symptom reduction described higher change scores. Regarding qualitative data, patients reported five main benefits from group therapy: Gain in social competence, self-confidence, self-reflection, interpersonal dynamics, and optimism/universality. Patients responding to CBASP identified significantly more factors than non-responders. Conclusions: Compared to studies with individual CBASP only, the present findings suggest that CBASP group therapy may contribute to the improvement of interpersonal behavior. Group therapy is discussed as a potential boosting effect for individual CBASP. However, as the present data were collected in a multimodal inpatient setting without competitor, randomized controlled trials are warranted that investigate the specific benefits of the group modality or the combined individual and group therapy over individual CBASP only.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anne Guhn
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
| | - David Schön
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
| | - Yvonne Zische
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
| | - Philipp Sterzer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stephan Köhler
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
van Wijk-Herbrink MF, Roelofs J, Broers NJ, Rijkeboer MM, Arntz A, Bernstein DP. Validation of Schema Coping Inventory and Schema Mode Inventory in Adolescents. J Pers Disord 2018; 32:220-241. [PMID: 28604277 DOI: 10.1521/pedi_2017_31_295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated whether the schema therapy constructs of schema coping and schema modes have val dity in adolescents. We examined the validity and reliability of the Schema Coping Inventory (SCI) and an 80-item version of the Schema Mode Inventory (SMI) in a mixed sample of adolescents. Confirmatory factor analyse showed that the first-order factor structures of the SCI and SMI were replicated, but that the hypothesized higher-order models of the SMI were not confirmed. Instead, we proposed an alternative higher-order model of Internalizing, Externalizing, Overachieving, and Healthy modes. In general, the SCI and SMI scales were able o distinguish the clinical sample from the community sample, and meaningful relationships were found between oping styles, schema modes, and behavior problems. In conclusion, our study supports the theorized relations ips between schema coping styles, schema modes, and behavior, problems in adolescents, and provides initial validation for the SCI and the, 80-item SMI in adolescent populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marjolein F van Wijk-Herbrink
- Conrisq Group, Zetten, the Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Psychological, Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Jeffrey Roelofs
- Department of Clinical Psychological, Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Psychology, Maastricht University
| | - Nick J Broers
- Department of Methodology and Statistics, Maastricht University
| | | | - Arnoud Arntz
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - David P Bernstein
- Conrisq Group, Zetten, the Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Psychological, Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands.,Departmentof Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Houben M, Claes L, Sleuwaegen E, Berens A, Vansteelandt K. Emotional reactivity to appraisals in patients with a borderline personality disorder: a daily life study. Borderline Personal Disord Emot Dysregul 2018; 5:18. [PMID: 30459949 PMCID: PMC6234606 DOI: 10.1186/s40479-018-0095-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Emotional instability, consisting of patterns of strong emotional changes over time, has consistently been demonstrated in daily life of patients with a borderline personality disorder (BPD). Yet, little empirical work has examined emotional changes that occur specifically in response to emotional triggers in daily life, so-called emotional reactivity. The goal of this study was to examine emotional reactivity in response to general emotional appraisals (i.e. goal congruence or valence, goal relevance or importance, and emotion-focused coping potential) and BPD-specific evaluations (trust and disappointment in self and others) in daily life of inpatients with BPD. METHODS Thirty inpatients with BPD and 28 healthy controls participated in an experience sampling study and repeatedly rated the intensity of their current emotions, emotional appraisals, and evaluations of trust and disappointment in self and others. RESULTS Results showed that the BPD group exhibited stronger emotional reactivity in terms of negative affect than healthy controls, however only in response to disappointment in someone else. BPD patients also showed weaker reactivity in positive affect in response to the appraised importance of a situation; the more a situation was appraised as important, the higher the subsequent positive affect for healthy controls only, not the patient group. CONCLUSIONS These findings show that appraisals can trigger strong emotional reactions in BPD patients, and suggest that altered emotional reactivity might be a potential underlying process of emotional instability in the daily life.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marlies Houben
- 1Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Tiensestraat 102, Box 3713, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Laurence Claes
- 1Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Tiensestraat 102, Box 3713, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.,2Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Ellen Sleuwaegen
- 2Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.,3University Department of Psychiatry, Campus Psychiatric Hospital Duffel, Stationsstraat 22c, 2570 Duffel, Belgium
| | - Ann Berens
- 3University Department of Psychiatry, Campus Psychiatric Hospital Duffel, Stationsstraat 22c, 2570 Duffel, Belgium
| | - Kristof Vansteelandt
- 4KU Leuven, University Psychiatric Center KU Leuven, Leuvensesteenweg 517, 3070 Kortenberg, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Rodgers S, grosse Holtforth M, Hengartner MP, Müller M, Aleksandrowicz AA, Rössler W, Ajdacic-Gross V. Serum testosterone levels and symptom-based depression subtypes in men. Front Psychiatry 2015; 6:61. [PMID: 25999864 PMCID: PMC4418274 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The main objective of this preliminary study was to further clarify the association between testosterone (T) levels and depression by investigating symptom-based depression subtypes in a sample of 64 men. The data were taken from the ZInEP epidemiology survey. Gonadal hormones of a melancholic (n = 25) and an atypical (n = 14) depression subtype, derived from latent class analysis, were compared with those of healthy controls (n = 18). Serum T was assayed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay procedure. Analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, non-parametrical tests, and generalized linear regression models were performed to examine group differences. The atypical depressive subtype showed significantly lower T levels compared with the melancholic depressives. While accumulative evidence indicates that, beyond psychosocial characteristics, the melancholic and atypical depressive subtypes are also distinguishable by biological correlates, the current study expanded this knowledge to include gonadal hormones. Further longitudinal research is warranted to disclose causality by linking the multiple processes in pathogenesis of depression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Rodgers
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Zurich University Hospital of Psychiatry, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin grosse Holtforth
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Michael P. Hengartner
- Department of Applied Psychology, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mario Müller
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Zurich University Hospital of Psychiatry, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Aleksandra A. Aleksandrowicz
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Zurich University Hospital of Psychiatry, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Wulf Rössler
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Zurich University Hospital of Psychiatry, Zurich, Switzerland
- Collegium Helveticum, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Laboratory of Neuroscience (LIM27), Institute of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Vladeta Ajdacic-Gross
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Zurich University Hospital of Psychiatry, Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hengartner MP, De Fruyt F, Rodgers S, Müller M, Rössler W, Ajdacic-Gross V. An integrative examination of general personality dysfunction in a large community sample. Personal Ment Health 2014; 8:276-89. [PMID: 25044701 DOI: 10.1002/pmh.1263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Recently, the severity of general personality dysfunction has gained broad interest in personality disorder (PD) research. We analysed data of 511 participants aged 20-41 years from a comprehensive psychiatric survey in the general population of Zurich, Switzerland. We added the trait-scores from all DSM-IV PDs, as assessed by a self-report questionnaire, to provide a measure of general personality dysfunction. Adjusting for the Big Five personality domains as a proxy for stylistic PD elements, this composite PD score exhibited strong associations with neuroticism and schizotypy. General personality dysfunction additionally revealed a moderate detrimental association with psychosocial functioning and a strong effect on coping resources, on heavy drinking and drug use and on most psychopathological syndromes. Of particular interest is the strong association with total psychopathological distress and co-occurrence of multiple disorders, suggesting that increasing PD severity relates to the degree of global impairment independent of specific PD traits. Discussed herein are implications for public mental health policies, classification, conceptualization and treatment of PDs.
Collapse
|
7
|
Hengartner MP, Ajdacic-Gross V, Rodgers S, Müller M, Haker H, Rössler W. Fluid intelligence and empathy in association with personality disorder trait-scores: exploring the link. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2014; 264:441-8. [PMID: 24022591 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-013-0441-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 08/24/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
There is some evidence that fluid intelligence as well as empathy may be significantly related to personality disorders (PDs). To our knowledge, no study has addressed those issues simultaneously in all 10 DSM PDs in a sample of the general population. We analysed data from 196 participants aged 20–41 from the Epidemiology Survey of the Zurich Programme for Sustainable Development of Mental Health Services (ZInEP), a comprehensive psychiatric survey in the general population of Zurich, Switzerland. We assessed the digit symbol-coding test (DSCT), the “reading the mind in the eyes” test (RMET) and the interpersonal reactivity index (IRI). Both measures of cognitive empathy (i.e. RMET and IRI perspective taking) were not related to any PD trait-score. The total PD trait-score was significantly associated with low scores on DSCT and IRI empathic concern and high scores on IRI personal distress, which indicates a dose–response relationship in those measures. DSCT was particularly related to borderline PD, IRI empathic concern to schizoid and narcissistic PDs, and IRI personal distress to avoidant PD. The proportion of variance explained in the total PD trait-score accounted for by DSCT, IRI empathic concern and IRI personal distress was 2.6, 2.3 and 13.3 %, respectively. Symptomatology and severity of PDs are related to low fluid intelligence and reduced emotional empathy as characterized by low empathic concern and high personal distress towards emotional expressions of others. Further research is needed that examines the association between cognitive empathy and personality pathology as well as potential clinical applications.
Collapse
|
8
|
Interpersonal functioning deficits in association with DSM-IV personality disorder dimensions. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2014; 49:317-25. [PMID: 23674198 DOI: 10.1007/s00127-013-0707-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE According to DSM, interpersonal functioning deficits are a main criterion for the general definition of personality disorders (PDs), but some PD diagnoses do not appear to be related to impaired interpersonal functioning. Social deficits have rarely been studied in all PD dimensions to date. METHODS We analyzed 511 adults aged 20-41 years from the general population of the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, using data from the Epidemiology Survey of the Zurich Programme for Sustainable Development of Mental Health Services (ZInEP). PD dimensions were measured with a questionnaire and indicators of interpersonal functioning with a semi-structured interview. Associations were analyzed with generalized linear models. RESULTS All PD dimensions were significantly associated with various indicators of interpersonal functioning deficits, such as distress and conflicts in friendships and partnership, feeling lonely, few close friends, and reduced social support. Schizotypal and borderline PD were relatively strongly associated with distress in friendships when compared with other PD dimensions. Furthermore, both dimensions were significantly related to all indicators of interpersonal functioning deficits. CONCLUSIONS Subjects scoring high on any PD dimension reported considerable deficits in interpersonal functioning as characterized by a solitary lifestyle, conflictual and distressful social relations, and lack of social support. All DSM-IV PDs are associated with poor interpersonal functioning, but there is some evidence that schizotypal and borderline symptomatology affects deficits in social interactions even more profoundly and pervasively than other PD dimensions.
Collapse
|
9
|
Hengartner MP, Müller M, Rodgers S, Rössler W, Ajdacic-Gross V. Occupational functioning and work impairment in association with personality disorder trait-scores. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2014; 49:327-35. [PMID: 23835577 DOI: 10.1007/s00127-013-0739-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Accepted: 06/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE According to the DSM, functional impairment is a main criterion for the general definition of personality disorders (PDs), but research suggests that some PDs might not be related to impaired functioning. Occupational functioning has rarely been examined in all ten DSM PDs. METHODS We analysed 511 adults aged 20-41 years from the general population of the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, using data from the Epidemiology Survey of the Zurich Programme for Sustainable Development of Mental Health Services. All PDs were assessed with dimensional trait-scores and associations with indicators of occupational functioning were analysed with generalised linear models. RESULTS Each PD revealed at least a weak association with some form of occupational impairment. Most PDs, especially from cluster A and B, were significantly related to occupational dysfunction, in particular low education level, conflicts in the workplace, dismissal or demotion, and unemployment. In contrast, obsessive-compulsive PD was mostly unrelated to occupational functioning. A total personality pathology dose-response relationship was observed for low education level, conflicts in the workplace, dismissal or demotion, and unemployment. CONCLUSIONS Impairment in occupational functioning is an important aspect particularly of cluster A and B PDs. Assuming that functional impairment is a predictor of illness severity, we advocate that clinicians should carefully explore indicators of occupational functioning in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of PDs. The findings discussed herein have implications for general treatment, interventions in the work environment, or re-integration of patients into the labour force.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Hengartner
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Zurich, PO Box 1930, 8021, Zurich, Switzerland,
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Bamelis LLM, Evers SMAA, Arntz A. Design of a multicentered randomized controlled trial on the clinical and cost effectiveness of schema therapy for personality disorders. BMC Public Health 2012; 12:75. [PMID: 22272740 PMCID: PMC3305366 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Despite international guidelines describing psychotherapy as first choice for people with personality disorders (PDs), well-designed research on the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of psychotherapy for PD is scarce. Schema therapy (ST) is a specific form of psychological treatment that proved to be effective for borderline PD. Randomized controlled studies on the effectiveness of ST for other PDs are lacking. Another not yet tested new specialized treatment is Clarification Oriented Psychotherapy (COP). The aim of this project is to perform an effectiveness study as well as an economic evaluation study (cost effectiveness as well as cost-utility) comparing ST versus COP versus treatment as usual (TAU). In this study, we focus on avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive, paranoid, histrionic and narcissistic PD. Methods/Design In a multicentered randomized controlled trial, ST, and COP as an extra experimental condition, are compared to TAU. Minimal 300 patients are recruited in 12 mental health institutes throughout the Netherlands, and receive an extensive screening prior to enrolment in the study. When eligible, they are randomly assigned to one of the intervention groups. An economic evaluation and a qualitative research study on patient and therapist perspectives on ST are embedded in this trial. Outcome assessments (both for clinical effectiveness and economic evaluation) take place at 6,12,18,24 and 36 months after start of treatment. Primary outcome is recovery from PD; secondary measures include general psychopathological complaints, social functioning and quality of life. Data for the cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses are collected by using a retrospective cost interview. Information on patient and therapist perspectives is gathered using in-depth interviews and focus groups, and focuses on possible helpful and impeding aspects of ST. Discussion This trial is the first to compare ST and COP head-to-head with TAU for people with a cluster C, paranoid, histrionic and/or narcissistic PD. By combining clinical effectiveness data with an economic evaluation and with direct information from primary stakeholders, this trial offers a complete and thorough view on ST as a contribution to the improvement of treatment for this PD patient group. Trial registration Netherlands Trial Register (NTR): NTR566
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lotte L M Bamelis
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
De Fruyt F, De Clercq BJ, van de Wiele L, Van Heeringen K. The Validity of Cloninger's Psychobiological Model Versus the Five-Factor Model to Predict DSM-IV Personality Disorders in a Heterogeneous Psychiatric Sample: Domain Facet and Residualized Facet Descriptions. J Pers 2006; 74:479-510. [PMID: 16529584 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00382.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The validity of Cloninger's psychobiological model and the Five-Factor Model of personality to predict DSM-IV personality disorders was examined in a psychiatric in-patient sample of 130 individuals. Patients completed Dutch authorized versions of the TCI (Cloninger, Svrakic, & Przybeck, 1993) and the NEO PI-R (Costa & McCrae, 1992) and were also administered the ADP-IV (Schotte & De Doncker, 1994), a Dutch self-report questionnaire to assess Axis-II disorders. No personality-descriptive model proved to be superior in explaining personality disorder symptoms at the higher-order level: the TCI dimensions better explained the Obsessive-Compulsive and the Narcissistic disorders, whereas the FFM accounted for more variance of the Avoidant disorder. However, differences were apparent at the lower-order level with the NEO facets out performing the TCI subscales for six to four personality disorders. FFM facet-level predictions of Widiger, Trull, Clarkin, Sanderson, and Costa (2002) were partially confirmed, with substantially better results using residualized facet scores. A set of TCI subscale personality disorder relationships is suggested.
Collapse
|