Compartment-resolved imaging of activity-dependent dynamics of cortical blood volume and oximetry

Functional conductivity imaging: quantitative mapping of brain activity

Theory and modelling suggest that detection of neuronal activity may be feasible using phase sensitive MRI methods. Successful detection of neuronal activity both in vitro and in vivo has been described while others have reported negative results. Magnetic resonance electrical properties tomography may be a route by which signal changes can be identified. Here, we report successful and repeatable detection at 3 Tesla of human brain activation in response to visual and somatosensory stimuli using a functional version of tissue conductivity imaging (funCI). This detects activation in both white and grey matter with apparent tissue conductivity changes of 0.1 S/m (17-20%, depending on the tissue baseline conductivity measure) allowing visualization of complete system circuitry. The degree of activation scales with the degree of the stimulus (duration or contrast). The conductivity response functions show a distinct timecourse from that of traditional fMRI haemodynamic (BOLD or Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent) response functions, peaking within milliseconds of stimulus cessation and returning to baseline within 3-4 s. We demonstrate the utility of the funCI approach by showing robust activation of the lateral somatosensory circuitry on stimulation of an index finger, on stimulation of a big toe or of noxious (heat) stimulation of the face as well as activation of visual circuitry on visual stimulation in up to five different individuals. The sensitivity and repeatability of this approach provides further evidence that magnetic resonance imaging approaches can detect brain activation beyond changes in blood supply.

Microfluctuations in Capillary Lumens Independent of Pericyte Lining Density in the Anesthetized Mouse Cortex

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to examine the spatiotemporal coherence of capillary lumen fluctuations in relation to spatial variations in the pericyte lining in the cortex of anesthetized mice.

METHODS

Two-photon microscopic angiography data (previously published) were reanalyzed, and spatial variations in capillary diameter fluctuations at rest and in capillary lining with vascular mural cells were measured along capillary centerlines.

RESULTS

Relatively large diameters of the capillaries (5.5 μm) coincided with a dense pericyte lining, while small capillaries (4.3 μm) had a sparse pericyte lining. Temporal variations had a frequency of about 0.1 Hz with an amplitude of 0.5 μm, which were negatively correlated with pericyte lining density. Spatial frequency analysis further revealed a common pattern of spatial variations in capillary diameter and pericyte lining, but temporal variations differed. The temporal variations in capillary lumens were locally distinct from those in neighboring locations, suggesting intrinsic fluctuations independent of the pericyte lining.

CONCLUSIONS

Capillary lumens in the brain exhibit slow microfluctuations that are independent of pericyte lining. These microfluctuations could affect the distribution of flowing blood cells and may be important for homogenizing their distribution in capillary networks.

Optogenetic demonstration of the involvement of SMA-negative mural cells in the regulation of cerebral blood flow

Mural cells are critical components of the cerebral vasculature. They are categorized into three primary subsets: arteriole smooth muscle cells (aSMCs), pericytes (PCs) and venule smooth muscle cells (vSMCs). It is well known that aSMCs can directly regulate cerebral blood flow (CBF) with their own contraction and dilation mechanisms. On the other hand, the direct involvement of PCs or vSMCs in CBF regulation is controversial. This ambiguity is largely due to the lack of specifically manipulable tools to isolate their function. To address this issue, we employed a set-subtraction approach by using a combination of tTA-mediated gene induction and Cre-mediated gene excision. We developed transgenic mice expressing optical actuators, channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) and photoactivated adenylyl cyclase (PAC) in smooth muscle actin (SMA)-negative mural cells that lack the machinery for SMA-mediated vasoregulation. Using these mouse models, we assessed CBF alterations in response to optical stimulation using laser Doppler techniques. Our results showed that optical stimulation induced notable CBF changes in both models. This study provides evidence for the potential regulatory role of PCs and vSMCs in cerebral hemodynamics and introduces powerful tools to specifically manipulate these cell types in vascular neurobiology.

Temporal mirror-symmetry in functional signals recorded from rat barrel cortex with optical coherence tomography

Functional optical coherence tomography (fOCT) detects activity-dependent light scattering changes in micro-structures of neural tissue, drawing attention as in vivo volumetric functional imaging technique at a sub-columnar level. There are 2 plausible origins for the light scattering changes: (i) hemodynamic responses such as changes in blood volume and in density of blood cells and (ii) reorientation of dipoles in cellular membrane. However, it has not been clarified which is the major contributor to fOCT signals. Furthermore, previous studies showed both increase and decrease of reflectivity as fOCT signals, making interpretation more difficult. We proposed combination of fOCT with Fourier imaging and adaptive statistics to the rat barrel cortex. Active voxels revealed barrels elongating throughout layers with mini-columns in superficial layers consistent with physiological studies, suggesting that active voxels revealed by fOCT reflect spatial patterns of activated neurons. These voxels included voxels with negative changes in reflectivity and those with positive changes in reflectivity. However, they were temporally mirror-symmetric, suggesting that they share common sources. It is hard to explain that hemodynamic responses elicit positive signals in some voxels and negative signals in the other. On the other hand, considering membrane dipoles, polarities of OCT signals can be positive and negative depending on orientations of scattering particles relative to the incident light. Therefore, the present study suggests that fOCT signals are induced by the reorientation of membrane dipoles.

Modelling the depth-dependent VASO and BOLD responses in human primary visual cortex

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) using a blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) contrast is a common method for studying human brain function noninvasively. Gradient-echo (GRE) BOLD is highly sensitive to the blood oxygenation change in blood vessels; however, the spatial signal specificity can be degraded due to signal leakage from activated lower layers to superficial layers in depth-dependent (also called laminar or layer-specific) fMRI. Alternatively, physiological variables such as cerebral blood volume using the VAscular-Space-Occupancy (VASO) contrast have shown higher spatial specificity compared to BOLD. To better understand the physiological mechanisms such as blood volume and oxygenation changes and to interpret the measured depth-dependent responses, models are needed which reflect vascular properties at this scale. For this purpose, we extended and modified the "cortical vascular model" previously developed to predict layer-specific BOLD signal changes in human primary visual cortex to also predict a layer-specific VASO response. To evaluate the model, we compared the predictions with experimental results of simultaneous VASO and BOLD measurements in a group of healthy participants. Fitting the model to our experimental data provided an estimate of CBV change in different vascular compartments upon neural activity. We found that stimulus-evoked CBV change mainly occurs in small arterioles, capillaries, and intracortical arteries and that the contribution from venules and ICVs is smaller. Our results confirm that VASO is less susceptible to large vessel effects compared to BOLD, as blood volume changes in intracortical arteries did not substantially affect the resulting depth-dependent VASO profiles, whereas depth-dependent BOLD profiles showed a bias towards signal contributions from intracortical veins.

Imaging of the pial arterial vasculature of the human brain in vivo using high-resolution 7T time-of-flight angiography

The pial arterial vasculature of the human brain is the only blood supply to the neocortex, but quantitative data on the morphology and topology of these mesoscopic arteries (diameter 50–300 µm) remains scarce. Because it is commonly assumed that blood flow velocities in these vessels are prohibitively slow, non-invasive time-of-flight magnetic resonance angiography (TOF-MRA)—which is well suited to high 3D imaging resolutions—has not been applied to imaging the pial arteries. Here, we provide a theoretical framework that outlines how TOF-MRA can visualize small pial arteries in vivo, by employing extremely small voxels at the size of individual vessels. We then provide evidence for this theory by imaging the pial arteries at 140 µm isotropic resolution using a 7 Tesla (T) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner and prospective motion correction, and show that pial arteries one voxel width in diameter can be detected. We conclude that imaging pial arteries is not limited by slow blood flow, but instead by achievable image resolution. This study represents the first targeted, comprehensive account of imaging pial arteries in vivo in the human brain. This ultra-high-resolution angiography will enable the characterization of pial vascular anatomy across the brain to investigate patterns of blood supply and relationships between vascular and functional architecture.

Cardiac pericytes function as key vasoactive cells to regulate homeostasis and disease

Pericytes (PCs)—mural cells that envelop endothelial cells (ECs) of microvessels—regulate tissue‐specific vasculature development as well as maturation and maintenance of endothelial barrier integrity. However, little is known about their tissue‐specific function in the heart. Specifically, the mechanism by which cardiac PCs constrict coronary capillaries remains undetermined. To gain insights into the function of cardiac PCs at the cellular level, we isolated NG2⁺ PDGFRβ⁺ CD146⁺ CD34⁻ CD31⁻ CD45⁻ PCs for detailed characterization. Functionally, we provide evidence that these PCs increased transepithelial electrical resistance and decreased endothelial permeability. We show for the first time that this population of PCs express contractile proteins, are stimulated by adrenergic signaling, and demonstrate stereotypical contraction and relaxation. Furthermore, we also studied for the first time, the PCs in in vitro models of disease. PCs in hypoxia activated the hypoxia‐inducible factor 1 alpha pathway, increased secretion of angiogenic factors, and caused cellular apoptosis. Supraphysiological levels of low‐density lipoprotein decreased PC proliferation and induced lipid droplet accumulation. Elevated glucose levels triggered a proinflammatory response. Taken together, our study characterizes cardiac PCs under in vitro disease conditions and supports the hypothesis that cardiac PCs are key vasoactive cells that can regulate blood flow in the heart.

Optical microangiography reveals temporal and depth-resolved hemodynamic change in mouse barrel cortex during whisker stimulation

SIGNIFICANCE

Cerebral blood flow (CBF) regulation at neurovascular coupling (NVC) plays an important role in normal brain functioning to support oxygen delivery to activating neurons. Therefore, studying the mechanisms of CBF adjustment is crucial for the improved understanding of brain activity.

AIM

We investigated the temporal profile of hemodynamic signal change in mouse cortex caused by neural activation and its variation over cortical depth.

APPROACH

Following the cranial window surgery, intrinsic optical signal imaging (IOSI) was used to spatially locate the activated region in mouse cortex during whisker stimulation. Optical microangiography (OMAG), the functional extension of optical coherence tomography, was applied to image the activated and control regions identified by IOSI. Temporal profiles of hemodynamic response signals obtained by IOSI and OMAG were compared, and OMAG signal was analyzed over cortical layers.

RESULTS

Our results showed that the hemodynamic response to neural activity revealed by blood flow change signal signal through IOSI is slower than that observed by OMAG signal. OMAG also indicated the laminar variation of the response over cortical depth, showing the largest response in cortical layer IV.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, we demonstrated the development and application of dual-modality imaging system composed of IOSI and OMAG, which may have potential to enable the future investigations of depth-resolved CBF and to provide the insights of hemodynamic events associated with the NVC.

Discrimination between Glioblastoma and Solitary Brain Metastasis: Comparison of Inflow-Based Vascular-Space-Occupancy and Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast MR Imaging

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Accurate differentiation between glioblastoma and solitary brain metastasis is of vital importance clinically. This study aimed to investigate the potential value of the inflow-based vascular-space-occupancy MR imaging technique, which has no need for an exogenous contrast agent, in differentiating glioblastoma and solitary brain metastasis and to compare it with DSC MR imaging.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty patients with glioblastoma and 22 patients with solitary brain metastasis underwent inflow-based vascular-space-occupancy and DSC MR imaging with a 3T clinical scanner. Two neuroradiologists independently measured the maximum inflow-based vascular-space-occupancy-derived arteriolar CBV and DSC-derived CBV values in intratumoral regions and peritumoral T2-hyperintense regions, which were normalized to the contralateral white matter (relative arteriolar CBV and relative CBV, inflow-based vascular-space-occupancy relative arteriolar CBV, and DSC-relative CBV). The intraclass correlation coefficient, Student t test, or Mann-Whitney U test and receiver operating characteristic analysis were performed.

RESULTS

All parameters of both regions had good or excellent interobserver reliability (0.74∼0.89). In peritumoral T2-hyperintese regions, DSC-relative CBV (P < .001), inflow-based vascular-space-occupancy arteriolar CBV (P = .001), and relative arteriolar CBV (P = .005) were significantly higher in glioblastoma than in solitary brain metastasis, with areas under the curve of 0.94, 0.83, and 0.72 for discrimination, respectively. In the intratumoral region, both inflow-based vascular-space-occupancy arteriolar CBV and relative arteriolar CBV were significantly higher in glioblastoma than in solitary brain metastasis (both P < .001), with areas under the curve of 0.91 and 0.90, respectively. Intratumoral DSC-relative CBV showed no significant difference (P = .616) between the 2 groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Inflow-based vascular-space-occupancy has the potential to discriminate glioblastoma from solitary brain metastasis, especially in the intratumoral region.

Robust Increase in Supply by Vessel Dilation in Globally Coupled Microvasculature

Neuronal activity induces changes in blood flow by locally dilating vessels in the brain microvasculature. How can the local dilation of a single vessel increase flow-based metabolite supply, given that flows are globally coupled within microvasculature? Solving the supply dynamics for rat brain microvasculature, we find one parameter regime to dominate physiologically. This regime allows for robust increase in supply independent of the position in the network, which we explain analytically. We show that local coupling of vessels promotes spatially correlated increased supply by dilation.

Three-Dimensional Microscopy Demonstrates Series and Parallel Organization of Human Peripapillary Capillary Plexuses

Purpose

To define the three-dimensional topologic organization of the human peripapillary capillary plexuses in order to better understand the hemodynamic characteristics of this retinal circulation.

Methods

The retinal microvasculature was perfusion labeled in five normal human donor eyes, and optical stacks were collected from regions immediately superior, temporal, inferior, and nasal to the optic disk by using confocal scanning laser microscopy. The spatial location and morphometric characteristics of capillary plexuses were compared. Three-dimensional visualization strategies were used to document the organization of vascular conduits that interconnect capillary beds and to study the communications between capillary beds and precapillary arterioles and postcapillary venules.

Results

The peripapillary microcirculation is composed of four capillary plexuses, including the radial peripapillary capillary plexus at the level of the nerve fiber layer, the superficial capillary plexus (SCP) at the level of the ganglion cell layer, the intermediate capillary plexus located at the inner boundary of the inner nuclear layer, and the deep capillary plexus located at the outer boundary of the inner nuclear layer. Capillary diameter and density were significantly different between the four plexuses (both P ≤ 0.011). The SCP is the only capillary bed that receives feeding and draining branches directly from precapillary arterioles and postcapillary venules, respectively. Four different inflow and outflow patterns characterized the communication between the SCP and surrounding capillary beds.

Conclusions

The capillary plexuses of the human peripapillary microcirculation are arranged in series and parallel and manifest specializations that likely reflect the unique metabolic demands and biochemical environment of the retinal layers.

Optical imaging and modulation of neurovascular responses

The cerebral microvasculature consists of pial vascular networks, parenchymal descending arterioles, ascending venules and parenchymal capillaries. This vascular compartmentalization is vital to precisely deliver blood to balance continuously varying neural demands in multiple brain regions. Optical imaging techniques have facilitated the investigation of dynamic spatial and temporal properties of microvascular functions in real time. Their combination with transgenic animal models encoding specific genetic targets have further strengthened the importance of optical methods for neurovascular research by allowing for the modulation and monitoring of neuro vascular function. Image analysis methods with three-dimensional reconstruction are also helping to understand the complexity of microscopic observations. Here, we review the compartmentalized cerebral microvascular responses to global perturbations as well as regional changes in response to neural activity to highlight the differences in vascular action sites. In addition, microvascular responses elicited by optical modulation of different cell-type targets are summarized with emphasis on variable spatiotemporal dynamics of microvascular responses. Finally, long-term changes in microvascular compartmentalization are discussed to help understand potential relationships between CBF disturbances and the development of neurodegenerative diseases and cognitive decline.

The use of intensity-based Doppler variance method for single vessel response to functional neurovascular activation

This study presents 1 use of optical coherence tomography (OCT) angiography technique to examine neurovascular coupling effect. Repeated B-scans OCT recording is performed on the rat somatosensory cortex with cranial window preparation while its contralateral forepaw is electrically stimulated to activate the neurons in rest. We use an intensity-based Doppler variance (IBDV) algorithm mapped cerebral blood vessels in the cortex, and the temporal alteration in blood perfusion during neurovascular activation is analyzed using the proposed IBDV quantitative parameters. By using principal component analysis-based Fuzzy C Means clustering method, the stimulus-evoked vasomotion patterns were classified into 3 categories. We found that the response time of small vessels (resting diameter 14.9 ±6.6 μm), middle vessels (resting diameter 21.1 ±7.9 μm) and large vessels (resting diameter 50.7 ±6.5 μm) to achieve 5% change of vascular dilation after stimulation was 1.5, 2 and 5.5 seconds, respectively. Approximately 5% peak change of relative blood flow (RBF) in both small and middle vessels was observed. The large vessels react slowly and their responses nearly 4 seconds delayed, but no significant change in RBF of the large vessels was seen.

Laminar fMRI: What can the time domain tell us?

The rapid developments in functional MRI (fMRI) acquisition methods and hardware technologies in recent years, particularly at high field (≥7 T), have enabled unparalleled visualization of functional detail at a laminar or columnar level, bringing fMRI close to the intrinsic resolution of brain function. These advances highlight the potential of high resolution fMRI to be a valuable tool to study the fundamental processing performed in cortical micro-circuits, and their interactions such as feedforward and feedback processes. Notably, because fMRI measures neuronal activity via hemodynamics, the ultimate resolution it affords depends on the spatial specificity of hemodynamics to neuronal activity at a detailed spatial scale, and by the evolution of this specificity over time. Several laminar (≤1 mm spatial resolution) fMRI studies have examined spatial characteristics of the measured hemodynamic signals across cortical depth, in light of understanding or improving the spatial specificity of laminar fMRI. Few studies have examined temporal features of the hemodynamic response across cortical depth. Temporal features of the hemodynamic response offer an additional means to improve the specificity of fMRI, and could help target neuronal processes and neurovascular coupling relationships across laminae, for example by differences in the onset times of the response across cortical depth. In this review, we discuss factors that affect the timing of neuronal and hemodynamic responses across laminae, touching on the neuronal laminar organization, and focusing on the laminar vascular organization. We provide an overview of hemodynamics across the cortical vascular tree based on optical imaging studies, and review temporal aspects of hemodynamics that have been examined across cortical depth in high spatiotemporal resolution fMRI studies. Last, we discuss the limits and potential of high spatiotemporal resolution fMRI to study laminar neurovascular coupling and neuronal processes.

Simultaneously estimating the task-related and stimulus-evoked components of hemodynamic imaging measurements

Task-related hemodynamic responses contribute prominently to functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) recordings. They reflect behaviorally important brain states, such as arousal and attention, and can dominate stimulus-evoked responses, yet they remain poorly understood. To help characterize these responses, we present a method for parametrically estimating both stimulus-evoked and task-related components of hemodynamic responses from subjects engaged in temporally predictable tasks. The stimulus-evoked component is modeled by convolving a hemodynamic response function (HRF) kernel with spiking. The task-related component is modeled by convolving a Fourier-series task-related function (TRF) kernel with task timing. We fit this model with simultaneous electrode recordings and intrinsic-signal optical imaging from the primary visual cortex of alert, task-engaged monkeys. With high [Formula: see text], the model returns HRFs that are consistent across experiments and recording sites for a given animal and TRFs that entrain to task timing independent of stimulation or local spiking. When the task schedule conflicts with that of stimulation, the TRF remains locked to the task emphasizing its behavioral origins. The current approach is strikingly more robust to fluctuations than earlier ones and gives consistently, if modestly, better fits. This approach could help parse the distinct components of fMRI recordings made in the context of a task.

Resting-state hemodynamics are spatiotemporally coupled to synchronized and symmetric neural activity in excitatory neurons

Brain hemodynamics serve as a proxy for neural activity in a range of noninvasive neuroimaging techniques including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). In resting-state fMRI, hemodynamic fluctuations have been found to exhibit patterns of bilateral synchrony, with correlated regions inferred to have functional connectivity. However, the relationship between resting-state hemodynamics and underlying neural activity has not been well established, making the neural underpinnings of functional connectivity networks unclear. In this study, neural activity and hemodynamics were recorded simultaneously over the bilateral cortex of awake and anesthetized Thy1-GCaMP mice using wide-field optical mapping. Neural activity was visualized via selective expression of the calcium-sensitive fluorophore GCaMP in layer 2/3 and 5 excitatory neurons. Characteristic patterns of resting-state hemodynamics were accompanied by more rapidly changing bilateral patterns of resting-state neural activity. Spatiotemporal hemodynamics could be modeled by convolving this neural activity with hemodynamic response functions derived through both deconvolution and gamma-variate fitting. Simultaneous imaging and electrophysiology confirmed that Thy1-GCaMP signals are well-predicted by multiunit activity. Neurovascular coupling between resting-state neural activity and hemodynamics was robust and fast in awake animals, whereas coupling in urethane-anesthetized animals was slower, and in some cases included lower-frequency (<0.04 Hz) hemodynamic fluctuations that were not well-predicted by local Thy1-GCaMP recordings. These results support that resting-state hemodynamics in the awake and anesthetized brain are coupled to underlying patterns of excitatory neural activity. The patterns of bilaterally-symmetric spontaneous neural activity revealed by wide-field Thy1-GCaMP imaging may depict the neural foundation of functional connectivity networks detected in resting-state fMRI.

Measurement of arteriolar blood volume in brain tumors using MRI without exogenous contrast agent administration at 7T

PURPOSE

Arteriolar cerebral-blood-volume (CBVa) is an important perfusion parameter that can be measured using inflow-based vascular-space-occupancy (iVASO) MRI without exogenous contrast agent administration. The purpose of this study is to assess the potential diagnostic value of CBVa in brain tumor patients by comparing it with total-CBV (including arterial, capillary and venous vessels) measured by dynamic-susceptibility-contrast (DSC) MRI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twelve brain tumor patients were scanned using iVASO (on 7T as part of a research project) and DSC (on 3T as part of routine clinical protocols) MRI. Region-of-interest analysis was performed to compare the resulting perfusion measures between tumoral and contralateral regions, and to evaluate their associations with tumor grades.

RESULTS

CBVa measured by iVASO MRI significantly correlated with WHO grade (ρ = 0.37, P = 0.04). Total-CBV measured by DSC MRI showed a trend of correlation with WHO grade (ρ = 0.28, P = 0.5). The signal-to-noise ratio was comparable (P > 0.1) between the two methods, while the contrast-to-noise ratio between tumoral and contralateral regions was higher in iVASO-CBVa than DSC-CBV in WHO II/III patients (P < 0.05) but comparable in WHO IV patients (P > 0.1). A trend of positive correlation between DSC-CBV and iVASO-CBVa was observed (R2 = 0.28, P = 0.07).

CONCLUSION

In this initial patient study, CBVa demonstrated a stronger correlation with WHO grade than total-CBV. Further investigation with a larger cohort is warranted to validate whether CBVa can be a better classifier than total-CBV for the stratification of brain tumors, and whether iVASO MRI can be a useful alternative method for the assessment of tumor perfusion, especially when exogenous contrast agent administration is difficult in certain patient populations. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2016;44:1244-1255.

fMRI at High Spatial Resolution: Implications for BOLD-Models

As high-resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and fMRI of cortical layers become more widely used, the question how well high-resolution fMRI signals reflect the underlying neural processing, and how to interpret laminar fMRI data becomes more and more relevant. High-resolution fMRI has shown laminar differences in cerebral blood flow (CBF), volume (CBV), and neurovascular coupling. Features and processes that were previously lumped into a single voxel become spatially distinct at high resolution. These features can be vascular compartments such as veins, arteries, and capillaries, or cortical layers and columns, which can have differences in metabolism. Mesoscopic models of the blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) response therefore need to be expanded, for instance, to incorporate laminar differences in the coupling between neural activity, metabolism and the hemodynamic response. Here we discuss biological and methodological factors that affect the modeling and interpretation of high-resolution fMRI data. We also illustrate with examples from neuropharmacology and the negative BOLD response how combining BOLD with CBF- and CBV-based fMRI methods can provide additional information about neurovascular coupling, and can aid modeling and interpretation of high-resolution fMRI.

Regional Blood Flow in the Normal and Ischemic Brain Is Controlled by Arteriolar Smooth Muscle Cell Contractility and Not by Capillary Pericytes

The precise regulation of cerebral blood flow is critical for normal brain function, and its disruption underlies many neuropathologies. The extent to which smooth muscle-covered arterioles or pericyte-covered capillaries control vasomotion during neurovascular coupling remains controversial. We found that capillary pericytes in mice and humans do not express smooth muscle actin and are morphologically and functionally distinct from adjacent precapillary smooth muscle cells (SMCs). Using optical imaging we investigated blood flow regulation at various sites on the vascular tree in living mice. Optogenetic, whisker stimulation, or cortical spreading depolarization caused microvascular diameter or flow changes in SMC but not pericyte-covered microvessels. During early stages of brain ischemia, transient SMC but not pericyte constrictions were a major cause of hypoperfusion leading to thrombosis and distal microvascular occlusions. Thus, capillary pericytes are not contractile, and regulation of cerebral blood flow in physiological and pathological conditions is mediated by arteriolar SMCs.

Accessing to arteriovenous blood flow dynamics response using combined laser speckle contrast imaging and skin optical clearing

Laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) shows a great potential for monitoring blood flow, but the spatial resolution suffers from the scattering of tissue. Here, we demonstrate the capability of a combination method of LSCI and skin optical clearing to describe in detail the dynamic response of cutaneous vasculature to vasoactive noradrenaline injection. Moreover, the superior resolution, contrast and sensitivity make it possible to rebuild arteries-veins separation and quantitatively assess the blood flow dynamical changes in terms of flow velocity and vascular diameter at single artery or vein level.

Coupling mechanism and significance of the BOLD signal: a status report

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provides a unique view of the working human mind. The blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal, detected in fMRI, reflects changes in deoxyhemoglobin driven by localized changes in brain blood flow and blood oxygenation, which are coupled to underlying neuronal activity by a process termed neurovascular coupling. Over the past 10 years, a range of cellular mechanisms, including astrocytes, pericytes, and interneurons, have been proposed to play a role in functional neurovascular coupling. However, the field remains conflicted over the relative importance of each process, while key spatiotemporal features of BOLD response remain unexplained. Here, we review current candidate neurovascular coupling mechanisms and propose that previously overlooked involvement of the vascular endothelium may provide a more complete picture of how blood flow is controlled in the brain. We also explore the possibility and consequences of conditions in which neurovascular coupling may be altered, including during postnatal development, pathological states, and aging, noting relevance to both stimulus-evoked and resting-state fMRI studies.

Regulation of blood flow in the retinal trilaminar vascular network

Light stimulation evokes neuronal activity in the retina, resulting in the dilation of retinal blood vessels and increased blood flow. This response, named functional hyperemia, brings oxygen and nutrients to active neurons. However, it remains unclear which vessels mediate functional hyperemia. We have characterized blood flow regulation in the rat retina in vivo by measuring changes in retinal vessel diameter and red blood cell (RBC) flux evoked by a flickering light stimulus. We found that, in first- and second-order arterioles, flicker evoked large (7.5 and 5.0%), rapid (0.73 and 0.70 s), and consistent dilations. Flicker-evoked dilations in capillaries were smaller (2.0%) and tended to have a slower onset (0.97 s), whereas dilations in venules were smaller (1.0%) and slower (1.06 s) still. The proximity of pericyte somata did not predict capillary dilation amplitude. Expression of the contractile protein α-smooth muscle actin was high in arterioles and low in capillaries. Unexpectedly, we found that blood flow in the three vascular layers was differentially regulated. Flicker stimulation evoked far larger dilations and RBC flux increases in the intermediate layer capillaries than in the superficial and deep layer capillaries (2.6 vs 0.9 and 0.7% dilation; 25.7 vs 0.8 and 11.3% RBC flux increase). These results indicate that functional hyperemia in the retina is driven primarily by active dilation of arterioles. The dilation of intermediate layer capillaries is likely mediated by active mechanisms as well. The physiological consequences of differential regulation in the three vascular layers are discussed.

Optical Coherence Tomography angiography reveals laminar microvascular hemodynamics in the rat somatosensory cortex during activation

The BOLD (blood-oxygen-level dependent) fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) signal is shaped, in part, by changes in red blood cell (RBC) content and flow across vascular compartments over time. These complex dynamics have been challenging to characterize directly due to a lack of appropriate imaging modalities. In this study, making use of infrared light scattering from RBCs, depth-resolved Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) angiography was applied to image laminar functional hyperemia in the rat somatosensory cortex. After defining and validating depth-specific metrics for changes in RBC content and speed, laminar hemodynamic responses in microvasculature up to cortical depths of >1mm were measured during a forepaw stimulus. The results provide a comprehensive picture of when and where changes in RBC content and speed occur during and immediately following cortical activation. In summary, the earliest and largest microvascular RBC content changes occurred in the middle cortical layers, while post-stimulus undershoots were most prominent superficially. These laminar variations in positive and negative responses paralleled known distributions of excitatory and inhibitory synapses, suggesting neuronal underpinnings. Additionally, the RBC speed response consistently returned to baseline more promptly than RBC content after the stimulus across cortical layers, supporting a "flow-volume mismatch" of hemodynamic origin.

Spatiotemporal hemodynamic response functions derived from physiology

Probing neural activity with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) relies upon understanding the hemodynamic response to changes in neural activity. Although existing studies have extensively characterized the temporal hemodynamic response, less is understood about the spatial and spatiotemporal hemodynamic responses. This study systematically characterizes the spatiotemporal response by deriving the hemodynamic response due to a short localized neural drive, i.e., the spatiotemporal hemodynamic response function (stHRF) from a physiological model of hemodynamics based on a poroelastic model of cortical tissue. In this study, the model's boundary conditions are clarified and a resulting nonlinear hemodynamic wave equation is derived. From this wave equation, damped linear hemodynamic waves are predicted from the stHRF. The main features of these waves depend on two physiological parameters: wave propagation speed, which depends on mean cortical stiffness, and damping which depends on effective viscosity. Some of these predictions were applied and validated in a companion study (Aquino et al., 2012). The advantages of having such a theory for the stHRF include improving the interpretation of spatiotemporal dynamics in fMRI data; improving estimates of neural activity with fMRI spatiotemporal deconvolution; and enabling wave interactions between hemodynamic waves to be predicted and exploited to improve the signal to noise ratio of fMRI.

Noninvasive functional imaging of cerebral blood volume with vascular-space-occupancy (VASO) MRI

Functional MRI (fMRI) based on changes in cerebral blood volume (CBV) can probe directly vasodilatation and vasoconstriction during brain activation or physiologic challenges, and can provide important insights into the mechanism of blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal changes. At present, the most widely used CBV fMRI technique in humans is called vascular-space-occupancy (VASO) MRI, and this article provides a technical review of this method. VASO MRI utilizes T1 differences between blood and tissue to distinguish between these two compartments within a voxel, and employs a blood-nulling inversion recovery sequence to yield an MR signal proportional to 1 - CBV. As such, vasodilatation will result in a VASO signal decrease and vasoconstriction will have the reverse effect. The VASO technique can be performed dynamically with a temporal resolution comparable with several other fMRI methods, such as BOLD or arterial spin labeling (ASL), and is particularly powerful when conducted in conjunction with these complementary techniques. The pulse sequence and imaging parameters of VASO can be optimized such that the signal change is predominantly of CBV origin, but careful considerations should be taken to minimize other contributions, such as those from the BOLD effect, cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The sensitivity of the VASO technique is the primary disadvantage when compared with BOLD, but this technique is increasingly demonstrating its utility in neuroscientific and clinical applications.

Sensitivity of BOLD response to increasing visual contrast: spin echo versus gradient echo EPI

Previous evidence showed that spin-echo (SE) BOLD signals offer an increased linearity and promptness with respect to gradient-echo (GE) acquisition, possibly providing a more accurate estimate of the amplitude of neuronal activity. However there is no evidence that the two sequences differ in representing different activation levels due to changes in stimulus intensity. In this study at 3T we compared GE and SE BOLD responses to visual stimuli at increasing contrast levels (5%, 20%, 60%, and 100%). Both sequences showed a monotonic increase of the BOLD response with stimulus contrast. While the larger sensitivity of GE yielded overall larger signal changes, step-wise increase in activation for GE was significant only when comparing 20% with 5% contrast, whereas for SE a significant increase was observed also when comparing 60% with 20% contrast. Moreover, BOLD responses normalized to the lowest contrast showed that relative increases of SE fMRI signal with increasing stimulus strength are larger with respect to the corresponding values of GE signal. This difference was observed also when excluding voxels attributed to large vessels, suggesting a non negligible role of the extravascular contribution to the modulation of SE fMRI signal with stimulus intensity. These results are shown to be in agreement with theoretical predictions that we derived from a recently proposed model of GE and SE functional signals. The present findings suggest that, despite the limited increase in functional localization accuracy at low field, SE fMRI might offer a potential advantage in distinguishing different levels of stimulus-evoked brain activity.

Spontaneous oscillations in intrinsic signals reveal the structure of cerebral vasculature

Functional imaging of intrinsic signals allows minimally invasive spatiotemporal mapping of stimulus representations in the cortex, but representations are often corrupted by stimulus-independent spatial artifacts, especially those originating from the blood vessels. In this paper, we present novel algorithms for unsupervised identification of cerebral vascularization, allowing blind separation of stimulus representations from noise. These algorithms commonly take advantage of the temporal fluctuations in global reflectance to extract anatomic information. More specifically, the phase of low-frequency oscillations relative to global fluctuations reveals local vascular identity. Arterioles can be reconstructed using their characteristically high power in those frequencies corresponding to respiration, heartbeat, and vasomotion signals. By treating the vasculature as a dynamic flow network, we finally demonstrate that direction of blood perfusion can be quantitatively visualized. Application of these methods for removal of stimulus-independent changes in reflectance permits isolation of stimulus-evoked representations even if the representation spatially overlaps with blood vessels. The algorithms can be expanded further to extract temporal information on blood flow, monitor revascularization following a focal stroke, and distinguish arterioles from venules and parenchyma.

Compartment-resolved imaging of cortical functional hyperemia with OCT angiography

Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) angiography was applied to image functional hyperemia in different vascular compartments in the rat somatosensory cortex. Dynamic backscattering changes, indicative of changes in dynamic red blood cell (dRBC) content, were used to monitor the hemodynamic response. Three-dimensional movies depicting the microvascular response to neuronal activation were created for the first time. An increase in the attenuation coefficient during activation was identified, and a simple normalization procedure was proposed to correct for it. This procedure was applied to determine compartment-resolved backscattering changes caused by dRBC content changes during functional activation. Increases in dRBC content were observed in all vascular compartments (arterial, arteriolar, capillary, and venular), with the largest responses found in the arterial and arteriolar compartments. dRBC content increased with dilation in arteries but with barely detectable dilation in veins. dRBC content increased in capillaries without significant "all or none" capillary recruitment.

Brain slice on a chip: opportunities and challenges of applying microfluidic technology to intact tissues

Isolated brain tissue, especially brain slices, are valuable experimental tools for studying neuronal function at the network, cellular, synaptic, and single channel levels. Neuroscientists have refined the methods for preserving brain slice viability and function and converged on principles that strongly resemble the approach taken by engineers in developing microfluidic devices. With respect to brain slices, microfluidic technology may 1) overcome the traditional limitations of conventional interface and submerged slice chambers and improve oxygen/nutrient penetration into slices, 2) provide better spatiotemporal control over solution flow/drug delivery to specific slice regions, and 3) permit successful integration with modern optical and electrophysiological techniques. In this review, we highlight the unique advantages of microfluidic devices for in vitro brain slice research, describe recent advances in the integration of microfluidic devices with optical and electrophysiological instrumentation, and discuss clinical applications of microfluidic technology as applied to brain slices and other non-neuronal tissues. We hope that this review will serve as an interdisciplinary guide for both neuroscientists studying brain tissue in vitro and engineers as they further develop microfluidic chamber technology for neuroscience research.

Image-based vessel-by-vessel analysis for red blood cell and plasma dynamics with automatic segmentation

The aim of the present study was to test the hypothesis that vascular tones of cortical surface and parenchymal blood flow can be dissociated depending on the perturbation. To this end, a novel image-based analytical method for quantitatively measuring vessel diameters and flow dynamics was developed. The algorithm relies on the spatiotemporal coherence of the pixel intensity changes induced by the transit of the fluorescent signals measured using confocal laser scanning fluorescent microscopy in the rat cerebral cortex. A cocktail of fluorescently labeled red blood cell (RBC) and plasma agents was administered to simultaneously compare RBC and plasma dynamics in the same vascular networks. The time to fluorescent signal appearance and the width of the fluorescent signal were measured in each segment and compared between sodium nitroprusside-induced global and sensory stimulation-induced local perturbation conditions. We observed that infusion of sodium nitroprusside induced significant vasodilation in the surface artery, particularly in the small arteries (1.8-fold increase). Vasodilation induced by sensory stimulation was observed to depend on vessel size, but significant changes were only detected for the small arteries and veins. Measurements of the time to venous appearance revealed that appearance time was extended by sodium nitroprusside, but shortened during forepaw stimulation, relative to the control condition. Both perturbations provoked the largest changes between the small artery and vein segments, indicating that the changes in the appearance time originate from blood passage through parenchymal microcirculation. These findings support the hypothesis that cortical surface vascular tone and parenchymal blood flow are individually coordinated.

Cellular and physiological mechanisms underlying blood flow regulation in the retina and choroid in health and disease

We review the cellular and physiological mechanisms responsible for the regulation of blood flow in the retina and choroid in health and disease. Due to the intrinsic light sensitivity of the retina and the direct visual accessibility of fundus blood vessels, the eye offers unique opportunities for the non-invasive investigation of mechanisms of blood flow regulation. The ability of the retinal vasculature to regulate its blood flow is contrasted with the far more restricted ability of the choroidal circulation to regulate its blood flow by virtue of the absence of glial cells, the markedly reduced pericyte ensheathment of the choroidal vasculature, and the lack of intermediate filaments in choroidal pericytes. We review the cellular and molecular components of the neurovascular unit in the retina and choroid, techniques for monitoring retinal and choroidal blood flow, responses of the retinal and choroidal circulation to light stimulation, the role of capillaries, astrocytes and pericytes in regulating blood flow, putative signaling mechanisms mediating neurovascular coupling in the retina, and changes that occur in the retinal and choroidal circulation during diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, and Alzheimer's disease. We close by discussing issues that remain to be explored.

Cerebral artery-vein separation using 0.1-Hz oscillation in dual-wavelength optical imaging

We present a novel artery-vein separation method using 0.1-Hz oscillation at two wavelengths with optical imaging of intrinsic signals (OIS). The 0.1-Hz oscillation at a green light wavelength of 546 nm exhibits greater amplitude in arteries than in veins and is primarily caused by vasomotion, whereas the 0.1-Hz oscillation at a red light wavelength of 630 nm exhibits greater amplitude in veins than in arteries and is primarily caused by changes of deoxyhemoglobin concentration. This spectral feature enables cortical arteries and veins to be segmented independently. The arteries can be segmented on the 0.1-Hz amplitude image at 546 nm using matched filters of a modified dual Gaussian model combining with a single Gaussian model. The veins are a combination of vessels segmented on both amplitude images at the two wavelengths using multiscale matched filters of single Gaussian model. Our method can separate most of the thin arteries and veins from each other, especially the thin arteries with low contrast in raw gray images. In vivo OIS experiments demonstrate the separation ability of the 0.1-Hz based segmentation method in cerebral cortex of eight rats. Two validation studies were undertaken to evaluate the performance of the method by quantifying the arterial and venous length based on a reference standard. The results indicate that our 0.1-Hz method is very effective in separating both large and thin arteries and veins regardless of vessel crossover or overlapping to great extent in comparison with previous methods.

Diversity of neural-hemodynamic relationships associated with differences in cortical processing during bilateral somatosensory activation in rats

The neural-hemodynamic relationships may vary depending on cortical processing patterns. To investigate how cortical hemodynamics reflects neural activity involving different cortical processing patterns, we delivered electrical stimulation pulses to rat hindpaws, unilaterally or bilaterally, and simultaneously measured electrophysiological (local field potential, LFP < 100 Hz; multiunit activity, MUA>300 Hz) and optical intrinsic signals associated with changes in cerebral blood volume (CBV). Unilateral stimulation evoked neural and optical signals in bilateral primary somatosensory cortices. Ipsilateral optical responses indicating an increased CBV exhibited a peak magnitude of ~30% and mediocaudal shifts relative to contralateral responses. Correlation analyses revealed different scale factors between contralateral and ipsilateral responses in LFP-MUA and LFP-CBV relationships. Bilateral stimulation at varying time intervals evoked hemodynamic responses that were strongly suppressed at 40-ms intervals. This suppression quantitatively reflected suppressed LFP responses to contralateral testing stimulation and not linear summation, with slowly fluctuating LFP responses to ipsilateral conditioning stimulation. Consequently, in the overall responses to bilateral stimulation, CBV-related responses were more linearly correlated with MUA than with LFPs. When extracting high-frequency components (>30 Hz) from LFPs, we found similar scale factors between contralateral and ipsilateral responses in LFP-MUA and LFP-CBV relationships, resulting in significant linear relationships among these components, MUA, and cortical hemodynamics in overall responses to bilateral stimulation. The dependence of LFP-MUA-hemodynamic relationships on cortical processing patterns and the LFP temporal/spectral structure is important for interpreting hemodynamic signals in complex functional paradigms driving diverse cortical processing.

Optical detection of brain function: simultaneous imaging of cerebral vascular response, tissue metabolism, and cellular activity in vivo

It is known that a remaining challenge for functional brain imaging is to distinguish the coupling and decoupling effects among neuronal activity, cerebral metabolism, and vascular hemodynamics, which highlights the need for new tools to enable simultaneous measures of these three properties in vivo. Here, we review current neuroimaging techniques and their prospects and potential limitations for tackling this challenge. We then report a novel dual-wavelength laser speckle imaging (DW-LSI) tool developed in our labs that enables simultaneous imaging of cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral blood volume, and tissue hemoglobin oxygenation, which allows us to monitor neurovascular and tissue metabolic activities at high spatiotemporal resolutions over a relatively large field of view. Moreover, we report digital frequency ramping Doppler optical coherence tomography (DFR-OCT) that allows for quantitative 3D imaging of the CBF network in vivo. In parallel, we review calcium imaging techniques to track neuronal activity, including intracellular calcium approach using Rhod2 fluorescence technique that we develop to detect neuronal activity in vivo. We report a new multimodality imaging platform that combines DW-LSI, DFR-OCT, and calcium fluorescence imaging for simultaneous detection of cortical hemodynamics, cerebral metabolism, and neuronal activities of the animal brain in vivo, as well as its integration with microprobes for imaging neuronal function in deep brain regions in vivo. Promising results of in vivo animal brain functional studies suggest the potential of this multimodality approach for future awake animal and behavioral studies.

A processing work-flow for measuring erythrocytes velocity in extended vascular networks from wide field high-resolution optical imaging data

Comprehensive information on the spatio-temporal dynamics of the vascular response is needed to underpin the signals used in hemodynamics-based functional imaging. It has recently been shown that red blood cells (RBCs) velocity and its changes can be extracted from wide-field optical imaging recordings of intrinsic absorption changes in cortex. Here, we describe a complete processing work-flow for reliable RBC velocity estimation in cortical networks. Several pre-processing steps are implemented: image co-registration, necessary to correct for small movements of the vasculature, semi-automatic image segmentation for fast and reproducible vessel selection, reconstruction of RBC trajectories patterns for each micro-vessel, and spatio-temporal filtering to enhance the desired data characteristics. The main analysis step is composed of two robust algorithms for estimating the RBCs' velocity field. Vessel diameter and its changes are also estimated, as well as local changes in backscattered light intensity. This full processing chain is implemented with a software suite that is freely distributed. The software uses efficient data management for handling the very large data sets obtained with in vivo optical imaging. It offers a complete and user-friendly graphical user interface with visualization tools for displaying and exploring data and results. A full data simulation framework is also provided in order to optimize the performances of the algorithm with respect to several characteristics of the data. We illustrate the performance of our method in three different cases of in vivo data. We first document the massive RBC speed response evoked by a spreading depression in anesthetized rat somato-sensory cortex. Second, we show the velocity response elicited by a visual stimulation in anesthetized cat visual cortex. Finally, we report, for the first time, visually-evoked RBC speed responses in an extended vascular network in awake monkey extrastriate cortex.

Simultaneous automatic arteries-veins separation and cerebral blood flow imaging with single-wavelength laser speckle imaging

Automatic separation of arteries and veins in optical cerebral cortex images is important in clinical practice and preclinical study. In this paper, a simple but effective automatic artery-vein separation method which utilizes single-wavelength coherent illumination is presented. This method is based on the relative temporal minimum reflectance analysis of laser speckle images. The validation is demonstrated with both theoretic simulations and experimental results applied to the rat cortex. Moreover, this method can be combined with laser speckle contrast analysis so that the artery-vein separation and blood flow imaging can be simultaneously obtained using the same raw laser speckle images data to enable more accurate analysis of changes of cerebral blood flow within different tissue compartments during functional activation, disease dynamic, and neurosurgery, which may broaden the applications of laser speckle imaging in biology and medicine.

Pulsed infrared light alters neural activity in rat somatosensory cortex in vivo

Pulsed infrared light has shown promise as an alternative to electrical stimulation in applications where contact free or high spatial precision stimulation is desired. Infrared neural stimulation (INS) is well characterized in the peripheral nervous system; however, to date, research has been limited in the central nervous system. In this study, pulsed infrared light (λ=1.875 μm, pulse width=250 μs, radiant exposure=0.01-0.55 J/cm(2), fiber size=400 μm, repetition rate=50-200 Hz) was used to stimulate the somatosensory cortex of anesthetized rats, and its efficacy was assessed using intrinsic optical imaging and electrophysiology techniques. INS was found to evoke an intrinsic response of similar magnitude to that evoked by tactile stimulation (0.3-0.4% change in intrinsic signal magnitude). A maximum deflection in the intrinsic signal was measured to range from 0.05% to 0.4% in response to INS, and the activated region of cortex measured approximately 2mm in diameter. The intrinsic signal magnitude increased with faster laser repetition rates and increasing radiant exposures. Single unit recordings indicated a statistically significant decrease in neuronal firing that was observed at the onset of INS stimulation (0.5s stimulus) and continued up to 1s after stimulation onset. The pattern of neuronal firing differed from that observed during tactile stimulation, potentially due to a different spatial integration field of the pulsed infrared light compared to tactile stimulation. The results demonstrate that INS can be used safely and effectively to manipulate neuronal firing.

Inflow-based vascular-space-occupancy (iVASO) MRI

Vascular-space-occupancy (VASO) MRI, a blood nulling approach for assessing changes in cerebral blood volume (CBV), is hampered by low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) because only 10-20% of tissue signal is recovered when using nonselective inversion for blood nulling. A new approach, called inflow-VASO (iVASO), is introduced in which only blood flowing into the slice has experienced inversion, thereby keeping tissue and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) signal in the slice maximal and reducing CSF partial volume effects. SNR increases of 198% ± 12% and 334% ± 9% (mean ± SD, n = 7) with respect to VASO were found at TR values of 5 s and 2 s, respectively. When using inflow approaches, data interpretation is complicated by the fact that signal changes are affected by vascular transit times. An optimal TR-range (1.5-2.5 s) was derived in which the iVASO response during activation predominantly reflects arterial/arteriolar CBV (CBV(a)) changes. In this TR-range, perfusion contributions to the signal change are negligible because arterial label has not yet undergone capillary exchange, and arterial and precapillary blood signals are nulled. For TR = 2 s, the iVASO signal change upon visual stimulation corresponded to a CBV(a) increase of 58% ± 7%, in agreement with arteriolar CBV changes previously reported. The onset of the hemodynamic response for iVASO occurred 1.2 ± 0.5 s (n = 7) faster than for conventional VASO.

Simulation study of brain blood flow regulation by intra-cortical arterioles in an anatomically accurate large human vascular network. Part II: flow variations induced by global or localized modifications of arteriolar diameters

In a companion paper (Lorthois et al., Neuroimage, in press), we perform the first simulations of blood flow in an anatomically accurate large human intra-cortical vascular network (~10000 segments), using a 1D non-linear model taking into account the complex rheological properties of blood flow in microcirculation. This model predicts blood pressure, blood flow and hematocrit distributions, volumes of functional vascular territories, regional flow at voxel and network scales, etc. Using the same approach, we study flow reorganizations induced by global arteriolar vasodilations (an isometabolic global increase in cerebral blood flow). For small to moderate global vasodilations, the relationship between changes in volume and changes in flow is in close agreement with Grubb's law, providing a quantitative tool for studying the variations of its exponent with underlying vascular architecture. A significant correlation between blood flow and vascular structure at the voxel scale, practically unchanged with respect to baseline, is demonstrated. Furthermore, the effects of localized arteriolar vasodilations, representative of a local increase in metabolic demand, are analyzed. In particular, localized vasodilations induce flow changes, including vascular steal, in the neighboring arteriolar trunks at small distances (<300 μm), while their influence in the neighboring veins is much larger (about 1 mm), which provides an estimate of the vascular point spread function. More generally, for the first time, the hemodynamic component of various functional neuroimaging techniques has been isolated from metabolic and neuronal components, and a direct relationship with several known characteristics of the BOLD signal has been demonstrated.

High-speed vascular dynamics of the hemodynamic response

While a range of cellular mechanisms have been proposed to underlie control of neurovascular coupling, a comprehensive, reconciliatory model has yet to be determined. To fit with such a model, it is essential that candidate mechanisms exhibit reaction times, spatial ranges, and speeds of propagation that are consistent with the vascular manifestations of the 'hemodynamic response'. Understanding these vascular dynamics is therefore a critical step towards developing a robust model of neurovascular coupling. In this study, we utilize high-speed optical imaging of exposed rodent somatosensory cortex to explore and characterize the spatiotemporal dynamics of surface vessels during functional hyperemia. Our high-speed, high-resolution optical imaging approach allows us to study the hemodynamic response independently in individual vessels, and in discrete regions of the parenchyma with enough resolution to precisely characterize subtle spatial and temporal features of the response. Specifically, we explore when and where the first hemodynamic changes occur in response to stimuli, the direction and speed at which these changes propagate in arterioles and regions of the parenchyma, and the relative timing at which each of these compartments returns to its original baseline state. From these results, we are able to conclude that the hemodynamic response appears to initiate in the parenchyma and then spreads rapidly to surface arterioles. Following the initial onset we find evidence that the response spreads spatially outwards via the dilation of targeted arterioles. This propagation of vasodilation is independent of the direction of blood flow within each arteriole. We also find evidence of a decay phase that acts with a more uniform spatial dependence, rather than along targeted vessels, causing the periphery of the responding region to return to baseline first. We hypothesize that different underlying cellular mechanisms/signaling pathways are responsible for the response initiation and the response decay. Our results advance the fundamental understanding of the hemodynamic response, as well as our ability to evaluate potential cellular mechanisms for their involvement in neurovascular coupling.

Cortical depth-specific microvascular dilation underlies laminar differences in blood oxygenation level-dependent functional MRI signal

Changes in neuronal activity are accompanied by the release of vasoactive mediators that cause microscopic dilation and constriction of the cerebral microvasculature and are manifested in macroscopic blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) functional MRI (fMRI) signals. We used two-photon microscopy to measure the diameters of single arterioles and capillaries at different depths within the rat primary somatosensory cortex. These measurements were compared with cortical depth-resolved fMRI signal changes. Our microscopic results demonstrate a spatial gradient of dilation onset and peak times consistent with "upstream" propagation of vasodilation toward the cortical surface along the diving arterioles and "downstream" propagation into local capillary beds. The observed BOLD response exhibited the fastest onset in deep layers, and the "initial dip" was most pronounced in layer I. The present results indicate that both the onset of the BOLD response and the initial dip depend on cortical depth and can be explained, at least in part, by the spatial gradient of delays in microvascular dilation, the fastest response being in the deep layers and the most delayed response in the capillary bed of layer I.

SPLASSH: Open source software for camera-based high-speed, multispectral in-vivo optical image acquisition

Camera-based in-vivo optical imaging can provide detailed images of living tissue that reveal structure, function, and disease. High-speed, high resolution imaging can reveal dynamic events such as changes in blood flow and responses to stimulation. Despite these benefits, commercially available scientific cameras rarely include software that is suitable for in-vivo imaging applications, making this highly versatile form of optical imaging challenging and time-consuming to implement. To address this issue, we have developed a novel, open-source software package to control high-speed, multispectral optical imaging systems. The software integrates a number of modular functions through a custom graphical user interface (GUI) and provides extensive control over a wide range of inexpensive IEEE 1394 Firewire cameras. Multispectral illumination can be incorporated through the use of off-the-shelf light emitting diodes which the software synchronizes to image acquisition via a programmed microcontroller, allowing arbitrary high-speed illumination sequences. The complete software suite is available for free download. Here we describe the software's framework and provide details to guide users with development of this and similar software.

Cerebral oxygen delivery and consumption during evoked neural activity

Increases in neural activity evoke increases in the delivery and consumption of oxygen. Beyond observations of cerebral tissue and blood oxygen, the role and properties of cerebral oxygen delivery and consumption during changes in brain function are not well understood. This work overviews the current knowledge of functional oxygen delivery and consumption and introduces recent and preliminary findings to explore the mechanisms by which oxygen is delivered to tissue as well as the temporal dynamics of oxygen metabolism. Vascular oxygen tension measurements have shown that a relatively large amount of oxygen exits pial arterioles prior to capillaries. Additionally, increases in cerebral blood flow (CBF) induced by evoked neural activation are accompanied by arterial vasodilation and also by increases in arteriolar oxygenation. This increase contributes not only to the down-stream delivery of oxygen to tissue, but also to delivery of additional oxygen to extra-vascular spaces surrounding the arterioles. On the other hand, the changes in tissue oxygen tension due to functional increases in oxygen consumption have been investigated using a method to suppress the evoked CBF response. The functional decreases in tissue oxygen tension induced by increases in oxygen consumption are slow to evoked changes in CBF under control conditions. Preliminary findings obtained using flavoprotein autofluorescence imaging suggest cellular oxidative metabolism changes at a faster rate than the average changes in tissue oxygen. These issues are important in the determination of the dynamic changes in tissue oxygen metabolism from hemoglobin-based imaging techniques such as blood oxygenation-level dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).