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Yin H, Tang Q, Xia H, Bi F. Targeting RAF dimers in RAS mutant tumors: From biology to clinic. Acta Pharm Sin B 2024; 14:1895-1923. [PMID: 38799634 PMCID: PMC11120325 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2024.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
RAS mutations occur in approximately 30% of tumors worldwide and have a poor prognosis due to limited therapies. Covalent targeting of KRAS G12C has achieved significant success in recent years, but there is still a lack of efficient therapeutic approaches for tumors with non-G12C KRAS mutations. A highly promising approach is to target the MAPK pathway downstream of RAS, with a particular focus on RAF kinases. First-generation RAF inhibitors have been authorized to treat BRAF mutant tumors for over a decade. However, their use in RAS-mutated tumors is not recommended due to the paradoxical ERK activation mainly caused by RAF dimerization. To address the issue of RAF dimerization, type II RAF inhibitors have emerged as leading candidates. Recent clinical studies have shown the initial effectiveness of these agents against RAS mutant tumors. Promisingly, type II RAF inhibitors in combination with MEK or ERK inhibitors have demonstrated impressive efficacy in RAS mutant tumors. This review aims to clarify the importance of RAF dimerization in cellular signaling and resistance to treatment in tumors with RAS mutations, as well as recent progress in therapeutic approaches to address the problem of RAF dimerization in RAS mutant tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanhuan Yin
- Division of Abdominal Cancer, Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center and Laboratory of Molecular Targeted Therapy in Oncology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Qiulin Tang
- Division of Abdominal Cancer, Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center and Laboratory of Molecular Targeted Therapy in Oncology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Hongwei Xia
- Division of Abdominal Cancer, Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center and Laboratory of Molecular Targeted Therapy in Oncology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Feng Bi
- Division of Abdominal Cancer, Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center and Laboratory of Molecular Targeted Therapy in Oncology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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2
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Li Y, Yan B, He S. Advances and challenges in the treatment of lung cancer. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 169:115891. [PMID: 37979378 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 11/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer accounts for a relatively high proportion of malignant tumors. As the most prevalent type of lung cancer, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is characterized by high morbidity and mortality. Presently, the arsenal of treatment strategies encompasses surgical resection, chemotherapy, targeted therapy and radiotherapy. However, despite these options, the prognosis remains distressingly poor with a low 5-year survival rate. Therefore, it is urgent to pursue a paradigm shift in treatment methodologies. In recent years, the advent of sophisticated biotechnologies and interdisciplinary integration has provided innovative approaches for the treatment of lung cancer. This article reviews the cutting-edge developments in the nano drug delivery system, molecular targeted treatment system, photothermal treatment strategy, and immunotherapy for lung cancer. Overall, by systematically summarizing and critically analyzing the latest progress and current challenges in these treatment strategies of lung cancer, we aim to provide a theoretical basis for the development of novel drugs for lung cancer treatment, and thus improve the therapeutic outcomes for lung cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Li
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, People's Republic of China
| | - Bingshuo Yan
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, People's Republic of China
| | - Shiming He
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, People's Republic of China.
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Li C, Allison DB, He D, Mao F, Wang X, Rychahou P, Imam IA, Kong Y, Zhang Q, Zhang Y, Liu J, Wang R, Rao X, Wu S, Evers BM, Shao Q, Wang C, Li Z, Liu X. Phosphorylation of AHR by PLK1 promotes metastasis of LUAD via DIO2-TH signaling. PLoS Genet 2023; 19:e1011017. [PMID: 37988371 PMCID: PMC10662729 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1011017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Metastasis of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is a major cause of death in patients. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), an important transcription factor, is involved in the initiation and progression of lung cancer. Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1), a serine/threonine kinase, acts as an oncogene promoting the malignancy of multiple cancer types. However, the interaction between these two factors and their significance in lung cancer remain to be determined. In this study, we demonstrate that PLK1 phosphorylates AHR at S489 in LUAD, leading to epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and metastatic events. RNA-seq analyses reveal that type 2 deiodinase (DIO2) is responsible for EMT and enhanced metastatic potential. DIO2 converts tetraiodothyronine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3), activating thyroid hormone (TH) signaling. In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrate that treatment with T3 or T4 promotes the metastasis of LUAD, whereas depletion of DIO2 or a deiodinase inhibitor disrupts this property. Taking together, our results identify the AHR phosphorylation by PLK1 and subsequent activation of DIO2-TH signaling as mechanisms leading to LUAD metastasis. These findings can inform possible therapeutic interventions for this event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaohao Li
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Derek B. Allison
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Daheng He
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Fengyi Mao
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Xinyi Wang
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Piotr Rychahou
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
- Department of Surgery, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Ibrahim A. Imam
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Yifan Kong
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Qiongsi Zhang
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Yanquan Zhang
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Jinghui Liu
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Ruixin Wang
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Xiongjian Rao
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Sai Wu
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - B. Mark Evers
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
- Department of Surgery, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Qing Shao
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Chi Wang
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Zhiguo Li
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Xiaoqi Liu
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
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Liu Q, Huang J, Yan W, Liu Z, Liu S, Fang W. FGFR families: biological functions and therapeutic interventions in tumors. MedComm (Beijing) 2023; 4:e367. [PMID: 37750089 PMCID: PMC10518040 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023] Open
Abstract
There are five fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs), namely, FGFR1-FGFR5. When FGFR binds to its ligand, namely, fibroblast growth factor (FGF), it dimerizes and autophosphorylates, thereby activating several key downstream pathways that play an important role in normal physiology, such as the Ras/Raf/mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT, phospholipase C gamma/diacylglycerol/protein kinase c, and signal transducer and activator of transcription pathways. Furthermore, as an oncogene, FGFR genetic alterations were found in 7.1% of tumors, and these alterations include gene amplification, gene mutations, gene fusions or rearrangements. Therefore, FGFR amplification, mutations, rearrangements, or fusions are considered as potential biomarkers of FGFR therapeutic response for tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). However, it is worth noting that with increased use, resistance to TKIs inevitably develops, such as the well-known gatekeeper mutations. Thus, overcoming the development of drug resistance becomes a serious problem. This review mainly outlines the FGFR family functions, related pathways, and therapeutic agents in tumors with the aim of obtaining better outcomes for cancer patients with FGFR changes. The information provided in this review may provide additional therapeutic ideas for tumor patients with FGFR abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Liu
- Cancer CenterIntegrated Hospital of Traditional Chinese MedicineSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongChina
| | - Jiyu Huang
- Cancer CenterIntegrated Hospital of Traditional Chinese MedicineSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongChina
| | - Weiwei Yan
- Cancer CenterIntegrated Hospital of Traditional Chinese MedicineSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongChina
| | - Zhen Liu
- Cancer CenterIntegrated Hospital of Traditional Chinese MedicineSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongChina
- Key Laboratory of Protein Modification and DegradationBasic School of Guangzhou Medical UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongChina
| | - Shu Liu
- Department of Breast SurgeryThe Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical UniversityGuiyangGuizhouChina
| | - Weiyi Fang
- Cancer CenterIntegrated Hospital of Traditional Chinese MedicineSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouGuangdongChina
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Li C, Allison DB, He D, Mao F, Wang X, Rychahou P, Imam IA, Kong Y, Zhang Q, Zhang Y, Liu J, Wang R, Rao X, Wu S, Shao Q, Wang C, Li Z, Liu X. Phosphorylation of AHR by PLK1 promotes metastasis of LUAD via DIO2-TH signaling. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.31.551298. [PMID: 37577647 PMCID: PMC10418090 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.31.551298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Metastasis of Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is a major cause of death in patients. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is an important transcription factor involved in the initiation and progression of lung cancer. Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1), a serine/threonine kinase, is an oncogene that promotes the malignancy of multiple cancer types. Nonetheless, the interaction between these two factors and significance in lung cancer remains to be determined. Here, we demonstrate that PLK1 phosphorylates AHR at S489 in LUAD, which leads to epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and metastatic events. RNA-seq analyses show that type 2 deiodinase (DIO2) is responsible for EMT and enhanced metastatic potential. DIO2 converts tetraiodothyronine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3), which then activates thyroid hormone signaling. In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrate that treatment with T3 or T4 promotes the metastasis of LUAD, whereas depletion of DIO2 or deiodinase inhibitor disrupts this property. Taken together, our results identify the phosphorylation of AHR by PLK1 as a mechanism leading to the progression of LUAD and provide possible therapeutic interventions for this event.
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Ning W, Marti TM, Dorn P, Peng RW. Non-genetic adaptive resistance to KRAS G12C inhibition: EMT is not the only culprit. Front Oncol 2022; 12:1004669. [PMID: 36483040 PMCID: PMC9722758 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.1004669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Adaptions to therapeutic pressures exerted on cancer cells enable malignant progression of the tumor, culminating in escape from programmed cell death and development of resistant diseases. A common form of cancer adaptation is non-genetic alterations that exploit mechanisms already present in cancer cells and do not require genetic modifications that can also lead to resistance mechanisms. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is one of the most prevalent mechanisms of adaptive drug resistance and resulting cancer treatment failure, driven by epigenetic reprogramming and EMT-specific transcription factors. A recent breakthrough in cancer treatment is the development of KRASG12C inhibitors, which herald a new era of therapy by knocking out a unique substitution of an oncogenic driver. However, these highly selective agents targeting KRASG12C, such as FDA-approved sotorasib (AMG510) and adagrasib (MRTX849), inevitably encounter multiple mechanisms of drug resistance. In addition to EMT, cancer cells can hijack or rewire the sophisticated signaling networks that physiologically control cell proliferation, growth, and differentiation to promote malignant cancer cell phenotypes, suggesting that inhibition of multiple interconnected signaling pathways may be required to block tumor progression on KRASG12C inhibitor therapy. Furthermore, the tumor microenvironment (TME) of cancer cells, such as tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), contribute significantly to immune escape and tumor progression, suggesting a therapeutic approach that targets not only cancer cells but also the TME. Deciphering and targeting cancer adaptions promises mechanistic insights into tumor pathobiology and improved clinical management of KRASG12C-mutant cancer. This review presents recent advances in non-genetic adaptations leading to resistance to KRASG12C inhibitors, with a focus on oncogenic pathway rewiring, TME, and EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjuan Ning
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Thomas M. Marti
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Dorn
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ren-Wang Peng
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Chen Z, Ding C, Zhang T, He Y, Jiang G. Primary Hepatoid Adenocarcinoma of the Lung: A Systematic Literature Review. Onco Targets Ther 2022; 15:609-627. [PMID: 35676912 PMCID: PMC9167841 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s364465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Hepatoid adenocarcinoma (HAC) of the lung (HAL) is a rare and aggressive extrahepatic adenocarcinoma with an unknown etiology and unfavorable prognosis, which is similar to the pathophysiological characteristics of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Methods We first presented a 67-year-old patient diagnosed with HAC in the right middle lobe of the lung. Then, a systematic literature search was performed for HAL cases recorded between 1990 and 2020 based on three databases. The clinicopathological features, therapeutic method, and prognosis of this rare disease were reviewed, and corresponding prognostic factors were explored using Kaplan–Meier (K-M) curve and Cox proportional hazards regression model. Additionally, the potential biological mechanisms of HAL were further explored and compared with HCC and lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) based on online databases. Results In the present study, we reported an HAL patient who underwent surgical resection combined with chemotherapy and succumbed to disease 13 months after surgery. Additionally, a total of 43 experimental studies with 49 HAL patients, including the present case, met the inclusion criteria and were included in the present review. We found that HAL is characterized by a male-dominated incidence and is more common in the right lung. Patients in the surgical subgroup have a better prognosis than those in the non-surgical subgroup (p = 0.034). Moreover, the Cox proportional hazards regression model demonstrated that surgical resection can significantly improve the prognosis of HAL patients (p = 0.016). HAL is a rare disease associated with gene mutations that has a distinctive cause and unique pathogenesis. Additionally, Afatinib and Gefitinib may be new effective agents to better combat HAL. Conclusion In conclusion, males may exhibit an increased risk of developing HAL and poorer prognosis than females. Surgical resection combined with chemotherapy may prolong the survival of patients with HAL. HAL has its unique clinicopathological characteristics and biological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhitao Chen
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Shulan (Hangzhou) Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Shuren University Shulan International Medical College, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chenchen Ding
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Shulan (Hangzhou) Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Shuren University Shulan International Medical College, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ting Zhang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Shulan (Hangzhou) Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Shuren University Shulan International Medical College, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yahui He
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Shulan (Hangzhou) Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Shuren University Shulan International Medical College, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Guoping Jiang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Shulan (Hangzhou) Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Shuren University Shulan International Medical College, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Guoping Jiang, Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Shulan (Hangzhou) Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Shuren University Shulan International Medical College, 848# Dongxin Road, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province, People’s Republic of China, Tel +86-0571-87236570, Email
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Chilamakuri R, Rouse DC, Agarwal S. Inhibition of Polo-like Kinase 1 by HMN-214 Blocks Cell Cycle Progression and Inhibits Neuroblastoma Growth. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15050523. [PMID: 35631350 PMCID: PMC9144399 DOI: 10.3390/ph15050523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) is an essential cell cycle mitotic kinase component that plays an important role in cell cycle progression and has been reported to be involved in various cancers, including neuroblastoma (NB). PLK1 also regulates G2/M transition, chromosomal segregation, spindle assembly maturation, and mitotic exit. NB is an early embryonic-stage heterogeneous solid tumor and accounts for 15% of all pediatric cancer-related deaths. Therefore, we aimed to develop a targeting strategy for PLK1 by repurposing HMN-214 in NB. HMN-214 is a prodrug of HMN-176 and is known to selectively interfere with PLK1 function. In the present study, we performed the transcriptomic analysis of a large cohort of primary NB patient samples and revealed that PLK1 expression is inversely correlated with the overall survival of NB patients. Additionally, we found that PLK1 strongly correlates with NB disease and stage progression. HMN-214 significantly inhibited NB proliferation and colony formation in both MYCN-amplified and -nonamplified cell lines in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, HMN-214 induces apoptosis and significantly obstructs the cell cycle at the G2/M phase in NB cells by inhibiting multiple cell-cycle-related genes, such as PLK1, WEE1, CDK1, CDK2, Cyclin B1, CHK1, and CHK2. HMN-214 significantly inhibits cell cycle regulator CDK1 and the phosphorylation and activation of PLK1 in NB. In the NB 3D spheroid tumor model, HMN-214 significantly and in a dose-dependent manner inhibits spheroid tumor mass and growth. Overall, our study highlights that targeting PLK1 using HMN-214 is a novel therapeutic approach for NB.
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Metabolic synthetic lethality by targeting NOP56 and mTOR in KRAS-mutant lung cancer. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2022; 41:25. [PMID: 35039048 PMCID: PMC8762933 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-022-02240-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Oncogenic KRAS mutations are prevalent in human cancers, but effective treatment of KRAS-mutant malignancies remains a major challenge in the clinic. Increasing evidence suggests that aberrant metabolism plays a central role in KRAS-driven oncogenic transformation. The aim of this study is to identify selective metabolic dependency induced by mutant KRAS and to exploit it for the treatment of the disease. Method We performed an integrated analysis of RNAi- and CRISPR-based functional genomic datasets (n = 5) to identify novel genes selectively required for KRAS-mutant cancer. We further screened a customized library of chemical inhibitors for candidates that are synthetic lethal with NOP56 depletion. Functional studies were carried out by genetic knockdown using siRNAs and shRNAs, knockout using CRISPR/Cas9, and/or pharmacological inhibition, followed by cell viability and apoptotic assays. Protein expression was determined by Western blot. Metabolic ROS was measured by flow cytometry-based quantification. Results We demonstrated that nucleolar protein 5A (NOP56), a core component of small nucleolar ribonucleoprotein complexes (snoRNPs) with an essential role in ribosome biogenesis, confers a metabolic dependency by regulating ROS homeostasis in KRAS-mutant lung cancer cells and that NOP56 depletion causes synthetic lethal susceptibility to inhibition of mTOR. Mechanistically, cancer cells with reduced NOP56 are subjected to higher levels of ROS and rely on mTOR signaling to balance oxidative stress and survive. We also discovered that IRE1α-mediated unfolded protein response (UPR) regulates this process by activating mTOR through p38 MAPK. Consequently, co-targeting of NOP56 and mTOR profoundly enhances KRAS-mutant tumor cell death in vitro and in vivo. Conclusions Our findings reveal a previously unrecognized mechanism in which NOP56 and mTOR cooperate to play a homeostatic role in the response to oxidative stress and suggest a new rationale for the treatment of KRAS-mutant cancers. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13046-022-02240-5.
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Ning W, Yang Z, Kocher GJ, Dorn P, Peng RW. A Breakthrough Brought about by Targeting KRASG12C: Nonconformity Is Punished. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14020390. [PMID: 35053550 PMCID: PMC8774282 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14020390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary KRAS is the most common oncogene in human cancers and has long been considered ‘‘undruggable’’—that is, until recently, when covalent inhibitors that selectively target KRASG12C substitution were developed. The satisfactory results of multicenter clinical trials has led to the recent approval of therapy with KRASG12C inhibitors. Although KRASG12C allele-specific drugs have greatly improved the clinical outlook for patients with KRASG12C tumors, particularly lung adenocarcinomas, in which the KRASG12C mutant is most prevalent compared with other KRAS mutations, inevitable challenges, such as intrinsic and acquired drug resistance, must be overcome to maximize the efficacy of KRASG12C inhibitor therapy. Recent studies have shown that compensatory signaling pathways, such as the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, and epigenetic reprogramming, e.g., epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), are common mechanisms that mediate intrinsic resistance to KRASG12C inhibitors, whereas acquired resistance and ensuing recurrent disease can arise when cancer cells acquire secondary mutations in the KRAS protein that impair the covalent binding of KRASG12C inhibitors. The identification and targeting of KRASG12C inhibitor resistance mechanisms holds promise for novel strategies to effectively treat patients with KRASG12C-mutant cancers. Abstract KRAS is the most frequently mutated oncogene in lung carcinomas, accounting for 25% of total incidence, with half of them being KRASG12C mutations. In past decades, KRAS enjoyed the notorious reputation of being untargetable—that is, until the advent of G12C inhibitors, which put an end to this legend by covalently targeting the G12C (glycine to cysteine) substitution in the switch-II pocket of the protein, inhibiting the affinity of the mutant KRAS with GTP and subsequently the downstream signaling pathways, such as Raf/MEK/ERK. KRASG12C-selective inhibitors, e.g., the FDA-approved AMG510 and MRTX849, have demonstrated potent clinical efficacy and selectivity in patients with KRASG12C-driven cancers only, which spares other driver KRAS mutations (e.g., G12D/V/S, G13D, and Q61H) and has ushered in an unprecedented breakthrough in the field in recent decades. However, accumulating evidence from preclinical and clinical studies has shown that G12C-targeted therapeutics as single agents are inevitably thwarted by drug resistance, a persistent problem associated with targeted therapies. A promising strategy to optimize G12C inhibitor therapy is combination treatments with other therapeutic agents, the identification of which is empowered by the insightful appreciation of compensatory signaling pathways or evasive mechanisms, such as those that attenuate immune responses. Here, we review recent advances in targeting KRASG12C and discuss the challenges of KRASG12C inhibitor therapy, as well as future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjuan Ning
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland; (W.N.); (Z.Y.); (G.J.K.); (P.D.)
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Zhang Yang
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland; (W.N.); (Z.Y.); (G.J.K.); (P.D.)
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Gregor J. Kocher
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland; (W.N.); (Z.Y.); (G.J.K.); (P.D.)
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Dorn
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland; (W.N.); (Z.Y.); (G.J.K.); (P.D.)
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ren-Wang Peng
- Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland; (W.N.); (Z.Y.); (G.J.K.); (P.D.)
- Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 28, CH3008 Bern, Switzerland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: + 41-(0)31-684-0462
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