Single‐cell RNA sequencing of motoneurons identifies regulators of synaptic wiring in Drosophila embryos

Single nuclei RNA-sequencing of adult brain neurons derived from type 2 neuroblasts reveals transcriptional complexity in the insect central complex

In both Drosophila and mammals, the brain contains the most diverse population of cell types of any tissue. It is generally accepted that transcriptional diversity is an early step in generating neuronal and glial diversity, followed by the establishment of a unique gene expression profile that determines morphology, connectivity, and function. In Drosophila, there are two types of neural stem cells, called Type 1 (T1) and Type 2 (T2) neuroblasts. The diversity of T2-derived neurons contributes a large portion of the central complex (CX), a conserved brain region that plays a role in sensorimotor integration. Recent work has revealed much of the connectome of the CX, but how this connectome is assembled remains unclear. Mapping the transcriptional diversity of T2-derived neurons is a necessary step in linking transcriptional profile to the assembly of the adult brain. Here we perform single nuclei RNA sequencing of T2 neuroblast-derived adult neurons and glia. We identify clusters containing all known classes of glia, clusters that are male/female enriched, and 161 neuron-specific clusters. We map neurotransmitter and neuropeptide expression and identify unique transcription factor combinatorial codes for each cluster. This is a necessary step that directs functional studies to determine whether each transcription factor combinatorial code specifies a distinct neuron type within the CX. We map several columnar neuron subtypes to distinct clusters and identify two neuronal classes (NPF+ and AstA+) that both map to two closely related clusters. Our data support the hypothesis that each transcriptional cluster represents one or a few closely related neuron subtypes.

Functional insights into immunoglobulin superfamily proteins in invertebrate neurobiology and immunity

The Immunoglobulin Superfamily (IgSF) represents a vital protein family widely distributed in animal genomes, encompassing multifunctional proteins with immunoglobulin-like domains, including immunoglobulins. These proteins play pivotal roles in various biological processes, such as development, differentiation, adhesion, activation, regulation, and signal transduction. While the functions of IgSF in vertebrates are relatively well understood, their roles in invertebrates remain underexplored. This review aims to comprehensively summarize the functions and mechanisms of IgSF in invertebrates, focusing on arthropods, mollusks, and other primitive phyla. In arthropods, research on IgSF has primarily emphasized its roles in the nervous system, especially in axonal and synaptic regulation, and its critical functions in the immune system. Studies in mollusks have predominantly highlighted the immunological functions of IgSF in pathogen recognition, clearance responses, and signal transduction. In contrast, research on protozoa and platyhelminths has mainly focused on identifying IgSF molecules, with relatively limited insights into their functional roles. In sponges, IgSF is primarily associated with cell adhesion and intercellular recognition. By exploring the genetic and protein structural diversity of IgSF in invertebrates, this review reveals their multifunctionality and complexity in biological systems. It not only enhances our understanding of the roles of IgSF in invertebrates but also lays the groundwork for future studies on their potential applications in evolutionary biology and disease models.

Transcriptional complexity in the insect central complex: single nuclei RNA-sequencing of adult brain neurons derived from type 2 neuroblasts

In both invertebrates such as Drosophila and vertebrates such as mouse or human, the brain contains the most diverse population of cell types of any tissue. It is generally accepted that transcriptional diversity is an early step in generating neuronal and glial diversity, followed by the establishment of a unique gene expression profile that determines morphology, connectivity, and function. In Drosophila, there are two types of neural stem cells, called Type 1 (T1) and Type 2 (T2) neuroblasts. In contrast to T1 neuroblasts, T2 neuroblasts generate intermediate neural progenitors (INPs) that expand the number and diversity of cell types. The diversity of T2-derived neurons contributes a large portion of the central complex (CX), a conserved brain region that plays a role in sensorimotor integration. Recent work has revealed much of the connectome of the CX, but how this connectome is assembled remains unclear. Mapping the transcriptional diversity of neurons derived from T2 neuroblasts is a necessary step in linking transcriptional profile to the assembly of the adult brain. Here we perform single nuclei RNA sequencing of T2 neuroblast-derived adult neurons and glia. We identify clusters containing all known classes of glia, clusters that are male/female enriched, and 161 neuron-specific clusters. We map neurotransmitter and neuropeptide expression and identify unique transcription factor combinatorial codes for each cluster (presumptive neuron subtype). This is a necessary step that directs functional studies to determine whether each transcription factor combinatorial code specifies a distinct neuron type within the CX. We map several columnar neuron subtypes to distinct clusters and identify two neuronal classes (NPF+ and AstA+) that both map to two closely related clusters. Our data support the hypothesis that each transcriptional cluster represents one or a few closely related neuron subtypes.

A molecular atlas of adult C. elegans motor neurons reveals ancient diversity delineated by conserved transcription factor codes

Motor neurons (MNs) constitute an ancient cell type targeted by multiple adult-onset diseases. It is therefore important to define the molecular makeup of adult MNs in animal models and extract organizing principles. Here, we generate a comprehensive molecular atlas of adult Caenorhabditis elegans MNs and a searchable database. Single-cell RNA sequencing of 13,200 cells reveals that ventral nerve cord MNs cluster into 29 molecularly distinct subclasses. Extending C. elegans Neuronal Gene Expression Map and Network (CeNGEN) findings, all MN subclasses are delineated by distinct expression codes of either neuropeptide or transcription factor gene families. Strikingly, combinatorial codes of homeodomain transcription factor genes succinctly delineate adult MN diversity in both C. elegans and mice. Further, molecularly defined MN subclasses in C. elegans display distinct patterns of connectivity. Hence, our study couples the connectivity map of the C. elegans motor circuit with a molecular atlas of its constituent MNs and uncovers organizing principles and conserved molecular codes of adult MN diversity.

A molecular atlas of adult C. elegans motor neurons reveals ancient diversity delineated by conserved transcription factor codes

Motor neurons (MNs) constitute an ancient cell type targeted by multiple adult-onset diseases. It is therefore important to define the molecular makeup of adult MNs in animal models and extract organizing principles. Here, we generated a comprehensive molecular atlas of adult Caenorhabditis elegans MNs and a searchable database (http://celegans.spinalcordatlas.org). Single-cell RNA-sequencing of 13,200 cells revealed that ventral nerve cord MNs cluster into 29 molecularly distinct subclasses. All subclasses are delineated by unique expression codes of either neuropeptide or transcription factor gene families. Strikingly, we found that combinatorial codes of homeodomain transcription factor genes define adult MN diversity both in C. elegans and mice. Further, molecularly defined MN subclasses in C. elegans display distinct patterns of connectivity. Hence, our study couples the connectivity map of the C. elegans motor circuit with a molecular atlas of its constituent MNs, and uncovers organizing principles and conserved molecular codes of adult MN diversity.

A method to investigate muscle target-specific transcriptional signatures of single motor neurons

BACKGROUND

Motor neurons in the vertebrate spinal cord have long served as a paradigm to study the transcriptional logic of cell type specification and differentiation. At limb levels, pool-specific transcriptional signatures first restrict innervation to only one particular muscle in the periphery, and get refined, once muscle connection has been established. Accordingly, to study the transcriptional dynamics and specificity of the system, a method for establishing muscle target-specific motor neuron transcriptomes would be required.

RESULTS

To investigate target-specific transcriptional signatures of single motor neurons, here we combine ex-ovo retrograde axonal labeling in mid-gestation chicken embryos with manual isolation of individual fluorescent cells and Smart-seq2 single-cell RNA-sequencing. We validate our method by injecting the dorsal extensor metacarpi radialis and ventral flexor digiti quarti wing muscles and harvesting a total of 50 fluorescently labeled cells, in which we detect up to 12,000 transcribed genes. Additionally, we present visual cues and cDNA metrics predictive of sequencing success.

CONCLUSIONS

Our method provides a unique approach to study muscle target-specific motor neuron transcriptomes at a single-cell resolution. We anticipate that our method will provide key insights into the transcriptional logic underlying motor neuron pool specialization and proper neuromuscular circuit assembly and refinement.

Single cell RNA sequencing of the adult Drosophila eye reveals distinct clusters and novel marker genes for all major cell types

The adult Drosophila eye is a powerful model system for phototransduction and neurodegeneration research. However, single cell resolution transcriptomic data are lacking for this tissue. We present single cell RNA-seq data on 1-day male and female, 3-day and 7-day old male adult eyes, covering early to mature adult eyes. All major cell types, including photoreceptors, cone and pigment cells in the adult eye were captured and identified. Our data sets identified novel cell type specific marker genes, some of which were validated in vivo. R7 and R8 photoreceptors form clusters that reflect their specific Rhodopsin expression and the specific Rhodopsin expression by each R7 and R8 cluster is the major determinant to their clustering. The transcriptomic data presented in this report will facilitate a deeper mechanistic understanding of the adult fly eye as a model system.

Hox function and specificity – A tissue centric view

Since their discovery, the Hox genes, with their incredible power to reprogram the identity of complete body regions, a phenomenon called homeosis, have captured the fascination of many biologists. Recent research has provided new insights into the function of Hox proteins in different germ layers and the mechanisms they employ to control tissue morphogenesis. We focus in this review on the ectoderm and mesoderm to highlight new findings and discuss them with regards to established concepts of Hox target gene regulation. Furthermore, we highlight the molecular mechanisms involved the transcriptional repression of specific groups of Hox target genes, and summarize the role of Hox mediated gene silencing in tissue development. Finally, we reflect on recent findings identifying a large number of tissue-specific Hox interactor partners, which open up new avenues and directions towards a better understanding of Hox function and specificity in different tissues.

Cell type diversity in a developing octopus brain

Octopuses are mollusks that have evolved intricate neural systems comparable with vertebrates in terms of cell number, complexity and size. The brain cell types that control their sophisticated behavioral repertoire are still unknown. Here, we profile the cell diversity of the paralarval Octopus vulgaris brain to build a cell type atlas that comprises mostly neural cells, but also multiple glial subtypes, endothelial cells and fibroblasts. We spatially map cell types to the vertical, subesophageal and optic lobes. Investigation of cell type conservation reveals a shared gene signature between glial cells of mouse, fly and octopus. Genes related to learning and memory are enriched in vertical lobe cells, which show molecular similarities with Kenyon cells in Drosophila. We construct a cell type taxonomy revealing transcriptionally related cell types, which tend to appear in the same brain region. Together, our data sheds light on cell type diversity and evolution in the octopus brain.

Transcriptional profiling from whole embryos to single neuroblast lineages in Drosophila

Embryonic development results in the production of distinct tissue types, and different cell types within each tissue. A major goal of developmental biology is to uncover the "parts list" of cell types that comprise each organ. Here we perform single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of the Drosophila embryo to identify the genes that characterize different cell and tissue types during development. We assay three different timepoints, revealing a coordinated change in gene expression within each tissue. Interestingly, we find that the elav and Mhc genes, whose protein products are widely used as markers for neurons and muscles, respectively, show broad pan-embryonic expression, indicating the importance of post-transcriptional regulation. We next focus on the central nervous system (CNS), where we identify genes whose expression is enriched at each stage of neuronal differentiation: from neural progenitors, called neuroblasts, to their immediate progeny ganglion mother cells (GMCs), followed by new-born neurons, young neurons, and the most mature neurons. Finally, we ask whether the clonal progeny of a single neuroblast (NB7-1) share a similar transcriptional identity. Surprisingly, we find that clonal identity does not lead to transcriptional clustering, showing that neurons within a lineage are diverse, and that neurons with a similar transcriptional profile (e.g. motor neurons, glia) are distributed among multiple neuroblast lineages. Although each lineage consists of diverse progeny, we were able to identify a previously uncharacterized gene, Fer3, as an excellent marker for the NB7-1 lineage. Within the NB7-1 lineage, neurons which share a temporal identity (e.g. Hunchback, Kruppel, Pdm, and Castor temporal transcription factors in the NB7-1 lineage) have shared transcriptional features, allowing for the identification of candidate novel temporal factors or targets of the temporal transcription factors. In conclusion, we have characterized the embryonic transcriptome for all major tissue types and for three stages of development, as well as the first transcriptomic analysis of a single, identified neuroblast lineage, finding a lineage-enriched transcription factor.

Specificity of the Hox member Deformed is determined by transcription factor levels and binding site affinities

Hox proteins have similar binding specificities in vitro, yet they control different morphologies in vivo. This paradox has been partially solved with the identification of Hox low-affinity binding sites. However, anterior Hox proteins are more promiscuous than posterior Hox proteins, raising the question how anterior Hox proteins achieve specificity. We use the AP2x enhancer, which is activated in the maxillary head segment by the Hox TF Deformed (Dfd). This enhancer lacks canonical Dfd-Exd sites but contains several predicted low-affinity sites. Unexpectedly, these sites are strongly bound by Dfd-Exd complexes and their conversion into optimal Dfd-Exd sites results only in a modest increase in binding strength. These small variations in affinity change the sensitivity of the enhancer to different Dfd levels, resulting in perturbed AP-2 expression and maxillary morphogenesis. Thus, Hox-regulated morphogenesis seems to result from the co-evolution of Hox binding affinity and Hox dosage for precise target gene regulation.

Despite the central role of Hox genes in controlling morphogenesis, the DNA binding of different Hox members is relatively similar. Here they show that specificity of Hox member Dfd relies on a precise balance of transcription factors and binding site affinities.