Comparison of the light-harvesting networks of plant and cyanobacterial photosystem I

Photosystem I complexes form remarkably stable self-assembled tunneling junctions

This paper describes large-area molecular tunneling junctions comprising self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of light-harvesting protein complexes using eutectic Ga-In (EGaIn) as a top contact. The complexes, which are readily isolable in large quantities from spinach leaves, self-assemble on top of SAMs of [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid (PCBA) on gold (Au) supported by mica substrates (AuMica), which induces them to adopt a preferred orientation with respect to the electron transport chain that runs across the short axis of each complex, leading to temperature-independent rectification. We compared trimeric protein complexes isolated from thermophilic cyanobacteria to monomeric complexes extracted from spinach leaves by measuring charge-transport at variable temperatures and over the course of at least three months. Transport is independent of temperature in the range of 130 to 310 K for both protein complexes, affirming that the likely mechanism is non-resonant tunneling. The junctions rectified current and were stable for at least three months when stored at room temperature in ambient conditions, with the yield of working junctions falling from 100% to 97% over that time. These results demonstrate a straightforward strategy for forming remarkably robust molecular junctions, avoiding the fragility that is common in molecular electronics.

High-Resolution Frequency-Domain Spectroscopic and Modeling Studies of Photosystem I (PSI), PSI Mutants and PSI Supercomplexes

Photosystem I (PSI) is one of the two main pigment-protein complexes where the primary steps of oxygenic photosynthesis take place. This review describes low-temperature frequency-domain experiments (absorption, emission, circular dichroism, resonant and non-resonant hole-burned spectra) and modeling efforts reported for PSI in recent years. In particular, we focus on the spectral hole-burning studies, which are not as common in photosynthesis research as the time-domain spectroscopies. Experimental and modeling data obtained for trimeric cyanobacterial Photosystem I (PSI3), PSI3 mutants, and PSI3-IsiA18 supercomplexes are analyzed to provide a more comprehensive understanding of their excitonic structure and excitation energy transfer (EET) processes. Detailed information on the excitonic structure of photosynthetic complexes is essential to determine the structure-function relationship. We will focus on the so-called "red antenna states" of cyanobacterial PSI, as these states play an important role in photochemical processes and EET pathways. The high-resolution data and modeling studies presented here provide additional information on the energetics of the lowest energy states and their chlorophyll (Chl) compositions, as well as the EET pathways and how they are altered by mutations. We present evidence that the low-energy traps observed in PSI are excitonically coupled states with significant charge-transfer (CT) character. The analysis presented for various optical spectra of PSI3 and PSI3-IsiA18 supercomplexes allowed us to make inferences about EET from the IsiA18 ring to the PSI3 core and demonstrate that the number of entry points varies between sample preparations studied by different groups. In our most recent samples, there most likely are three entry points for EET from the IsiA18 ring per the PSI core monomer, with two of these entry points likely being located next to each other. Therefore, there are nine entry points from the IsiA18 ring to the PSI3 trimer. We anticipate that the data discussed below will stimulate further research in this area, providing even more insight into the structure-based models of these important cyanobacterial photosystems.

The location of the low-energy states in Lhca1 favors excitation energy transfer to the core in the plant PSI-LHCI supercomplex

Lhca1 is one of the four pigment-protein complexes composing the outer antenna of plant Photosystem I-light-havesting I supercomplex (PSI-LHCI). It forms a functional dimer with Lhca4 but, differently from this complex, it does not contain 'red-forms,' i.e., pigments absorbing above 700 nm. Interestingly, the recent PSI-LHCI structures suggest that Lhca1 is the main point of delivering the energy harvested by the antenna to the core. To identify the excitation energy pathways in Lhca1, we developed a structure-based exciton model based on the simultaneous fit of the low-temperature absorption, linear dichroism, and fluorescence spectra of wild-type Lhca1 and two mutants, lacking chlorophylls contributing to the long-wavelength region of the absorption. The model enables us to define the locations of the lowest energy pigments in Lhca1 and estimate pathways and timescales of energy transfer within the complex and to the PSI core. We found that Lhca1 has a particular energy landscape with an unusual (compared to Lhca4, LHCII, and CP29) configuration of the low-energy states. Remarkably, these states are located near the core, facilitating direct energy transfer to it. Moreover, the low-energy states of Lhca1 are also coupled to the red-most state (red forms) of the neighboring Lhca4 antenna, providing a pathway for effective excitation energy transfer from Lhca4 to the core.

Protein Orientation Defines Rectification of Electronic Current via Solid-State Junction of Entire Photosystem-1 Complex

We demonstrate that the direction of current rectification via one of nature's most efficient light-harvesting systems, the photosystem 1 complex (PS1), can be controlled by its orientation on Au substrates. Molecular self-assembly of the PS1 complex using four different linkers with distinct functional head groups that interact by electrostatic and hydrogen bonds with different surface parts of the entire protein PS1 complex was used to tailor the PS1 orientation. We observe an orientation-dependent rectification in the current-voltage characteristics for linker/PS1 molecule junctions. Results of an earlier study using a surface two-site PS1 mutant complex having its orientation set by covalent binding to the Au substrate supports our conclusion. Current-voltage-temperature measurements on the linker/PS1 complex indicate off-resonant tunneling as the main electron transport mechanism. Our ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy results highlight the importance of the protein orientation for the energy level alignment and provide insight into the charge transport mechanism via the PS1 transport chain.

Conversion of light into electricity in a semi-synthetic system based on photosynthetic bacterial chromatophores

Chromatophores (Chr) from photosynthetic nonsulfur purple bacterium Rhodobacter sphaeroides immobilized onto a Millipore membrane filter (MF) and sandwiched between two semiconductor indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes (termed ITO|Chr - MF|ITO) have been used to measure voltage (ΔV) induced by continuous illumination. The maximum ΔV was detected in the presence of ascorbate / N,N,N'N'-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine couple, coenzyme UQ₀, disaccaride trehalose and antimycin A, an inhibitor of cytochrome bc₁ complex. In doing so, the light-induced electron transfer in the reaction centers was the major source of photovoltages. The stability of the voltage signal upon prolonged irradiation (>1 h) may be due to the maintenance of a conformation that is optimal for the functioning of integral protein complexes and stabilization of lipid bilayer membranes in the presence of trehalose. Retaining ∼70 % of the original photovoltage performance on the 30th day of storage at 23 °C in the dark under air was achieved after re-injection of fresh buffer (∼40 μL) containing redox mediators into the ITO|Chr - MF|ITO system. The approach we use is easy and can be extended to other biological intact systems (cells, thylakoid membranes) capable of converting energy of light.

Ultrafast excited state dynamics in the monomeric and trimeric photosystem I core complex of Spirulina platensis probed by two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy

Photosystem I (PSI), a naturally occurring supercomplex composed of a core part and a light-harvesting antenna, plays an essential role in the photosynthetic electron transfer chain. Evolutionary adaptation dictates a large variability in the type, number, arrangement, and absorption of the Chlorophylls (Chls) responsible for the early steps of light-harvesting and charge separation. For example, the specific location of long-wavelength Chls (referred to as red forms) in the cyanobacterial core has been intensively investigated, but the assignment of the chromophores involved is still controversial. The most red-shifted Chl a form has been observed in the trimer of the PSI core of the cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis, with an absorption centered at ∼740 nm. Here, we apply two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy to study photoexcitation dynamics in isolated trimers and monomers of the PSI core of S. platensis. By means of global analysis, we resolve and compare direct downhill and uphill excitation energy transfer (EET) processes between the bulk Chls and the red forms, observing significant differences between the monomer (lacking the most far red Chl form at 740 nm) and the trimer, with the ultrafast EET component accelerated by five times, from 500 to 100 fs, in the latter. Our findings highlight the complexity of EET dynamics occurring over a broad range of time constants and their sensitivity to energy distribution and arrangement of the cofactors involved. The comparison of monomeric and trimeric forms, differing both in the antenna dimension and in the extent of red forms, enables us to extract significant information regarding PSI functionality.

Cyclophilin anaCyp40 regulates photosystem assembly and phycobilisome association in a cyanobacterium

Cyclophilins, or immunophilins, are proteins found in many organisms including bacteria, plants and humans. Most of them display peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase activity, and play roles as chaperones or in signal transduction. Here, we show that cyclophilin anaCyp40 from the cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 is enzymatically active, and seems to be involved in general stress responses and in assembly of photosynthetic complexes. The protein is associated with the thylakoid membrane and interacts with phycobilisome and photosystem components. Knockdown of anacyp40 leads to growth defects under high-salt and high-light conditions, and reduced energy transfer from phycobilisomes to photosystems. Elucidation of the anaCyp40 crystal structure at 1.2-Å resolution reveals an N-terminal helical domain with similarity to PsbQ components of plant photosystem II, and a C-terminal cyclophilin domain with a substrate-binding site. The anaCyp40 structure is distinct from that of other multi-domain cyclophilins (such as Arabidopsis thaliana Cyp38), and presents features that are absent in single-domain cyclophilins.

Cryo-EM structure of a functional monomeric Photosystem I from Thermosynechococcus elongatus reveals red chlorophyll cluster

A high-resolution structure of trimeric cyanobacterial Photosystem I (PSI) from Thermosynechococcus elongatus was reported as the first atomic model of PSI almost 20 years ago. However, the monomeric PSI structure has not yet been reported despite long-standing interest in its structure and extensive spectroscopic characterization of the loss of red chlorophylls upon monomerization. Here, we describe the structure of monomeric PSI from Thermosynechococcus elongatus BP-1. Comparison with the trimer structure gave detailed insights into monomerization-induced changes in both the central trimerization domain and the peripheral regions of the complex. Monomerization-induced loss of red chlorophylls is assigned to a cluster of chlorophylls adjacent to PsaX. Based on our findings, we propose a role of PsaX in the stabilization of red chlorophylls and that lipids of the surrounding membrane present a major source of thermal energy for uphill excitation energy transfer from red chlorophylls to P700.

Modelling photosystem I as a complex interacting network

In this paper, we model the excitation energy transfer (EET) of photosystem I (PSI) of the common pea plant Pisum sativum as a complex interacting network. The magnitude of the link energy transfer between nodes/chromophores is computed by Forster resonant energy transfer (FRET) using the pairwise physical distances between chromophores from the PDB 5L8R (Protein Data Bank). We measure the global PSI network EET efficiency adopting well-known network theory indicators: the network efficiency (Eff) and the largest connected component (LCC). We also account the number of connected nodes/chromophores to P700 (CN), a new ad hoc measure we introduce here to indicate how many nodes in the network can actually transfer energy to the P700 reaction centre. We find that when progressively removing the weak links of lower EET, the Eff decreases, while the EET paths integrity (LCC and CN) is still preserved. This finding would show that the PSI is a resilient system owning a large window of functioning feasibility and it is completely impaired only when removing most of the network links. From the study of different types of chromophore, we propose different primary functions within the PSI system: chlorophyll a (CLA) molecules are the central nodes in the EET process, while other chromophore types have different primary functions. Furthermore, we perform nodes removal simulations to understand how the nodes/chromophores malfunctioning may affect PSI functioning. We discover that the removal of the CLA triggers the fastest decrease in the Eff, confirming that CAL is the main contributors to the high EET efficiency. Our outcomes open new perspectives of research, such comparing the PSI energy transfer efficiency of different natural and agricultural plant species and investigating the light-harvesting mechanisms of artificial photosynthesis both in plant agriculture and in the field of solar energy applications.

Identification, expression, and putative target gene analysis of nuclear factor-Y (NF-Y) transcription factors in tea plant (Camellia sinensis)

Genome-wide identification and characterization of nuclear factor-Y family in tea plants, and their expression profiles and putative targets provide the basis for further elucidation of their biological functions. The nuclear factor-Y (NF-Y) transcription factors (TFs) are crucial regulators of plant growth and physiology. However, the NF-Y TFs in tea plant (Camellia sinensis) have not yet been elucidated, and its biological functions, especially the putative target genes within the genome range, are still unclear. In this study, we identified 35 CsNF-Y encoding genes in the tea plant genome, including 10 CsNF-YAs, 15 CsNF-YBs and 10 CsNF-YCs. Their conserved domains and motifs, phylogeny, duplication event, gene structure, and promoter were subsequently analyzed. Tissue expression analysis revealed that CsNF-Ys exhibited three distinct expression patterns in eight tea tree tissues, among which CsNF-YAs were moderately expressed. Drought and abscisic acid (ABA) treatment indicated that CsNF-YAs may have a greater impact than other subunit members. Furthermore, through the genome-wide investigation of the presence of the CCAAT box, we found that CsNF-Ys may participate in the development of tea plants by regulating target genes of multiple physiological pathways, including photosynthesis, chlorophyll metabolism, fatty acid biosynthesis, and amino acid metabolism pathways. Our findings will contribute to the functional analysis of NF-Y genes in woody plants and the cultivation of high-quality tea plant cultivars.

Transcriptome sequencing and ITRAQ reveal the detoxification mechanism of Bacillus GJ1, a potential biocontrol agent for Huanglongbing

Huanglongbing (HLB) is the most serious disease affecting citrus production worldwide. No HLB-resistant citrus varieties exist. The HLB pathogen Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus is nonculturable, increasing the difficulty of preventing and curing the disease. We successfully screened the biocontrol agent Bacillus GJ1 for the control of HLB in nursery-grown citrus plants. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of the transcriptome and isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification of the proteome revealed differences in the detoxification responses of Bacillus GJ1-treated and -untreated Ca. L. asiaticus-infected citrus. Phylogenetic tree alignment showed that GJ1 was classified as B. amyloliquefaciens. The effect of eliminating the HLB pathogen was measured using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and PCR. The results indicate that the rate of detoxification reached 50% after seven irrigations, of plants with an OD600nm≈1 Bacillus GJ1 suspension. Most importantly, photosynthesis-antenna proteins, photosynthesis, plant-pathogen interactions, and protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum were significantly upregulated (padj < 0.05), as shown by the KEGG enrichment analysis of the transcriptomes; nine of the upregulated genes were validated by qPCR. Transcription factor analysis of the transcriptomes was performed, and 10 TFs were validated by qPCR. Cyanoamino acid metabolism, regulation of autophagy, isoflavonoid biosynthesis, starch and sucrose metabolism, protein export, porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism, and carotenoid biosynthesis were investigated by KEGG enrichment analysis of the proteome, and significant differences were found in the expression of the genes involved in those pathways. Correlation analysis of the proteome and transcriptome showed common entries for the significantly different expression of proteins and the significantly different expression of genes in the GO and KEGG pathways, respectively. The above results reveal important information about the detoxification pathways.

Structure of the plant photosystem I

Plant photosystem I (PSI) is one of the most intricate membrane complexes in nature. It comprises two complexes, a reaction center and light-harvesting complex (LHC), which together form the PSI-LHC supercomplex. The crystal structure of plant PSI was solved with two distinct crystal forms. The first, crystallized at pH 6.5, exhibited P21 symmetry; the second, crystallized at pH 8.5, exhibited P212121 symmetry. The surfaces involved in binding plastocyanin and ferredoxin are identical in both forms. The crystal structure at 2.6 Å resolution revealed 16 subunits, 45 transmembrane helices, and 232 prosthetic groups, including 143 chlorophyll a, 13 chlorophyll b, 27 β-carotene, 7 lutein, 2 xanthophyll, 1 zeaxanthin, 20 monogalactosyl diglyceride, 7 phosphatidyl diglyceride, 5 digalactosyl diglyceride, 2 calcium ions, 2 phylloquinone, and 3 iron sulfur clusters. The model reveals detailed interactions, providing mechanisms for excitation energy transfer and its modulation in one of nature's most efficient photochemical machine.

Intermolecular Singlet and Triplet Exciton Transfer Integrals from Many-Body Green's Functions Theory

A general approach to determine orientation and distance-dependent effective intermolecular exciton transfer integrals from many-body Green's functions theory is presented. On the basis of the GW approximation and the Bethe-Salpeter equation (BSE), a projection technique is employed to obtain the excitonic coupling by forming the expectation value of a supramolecular BSE Hamiltonian with electron-hole wave functions for excitations localized on two separated chromophores. Within this approach, accounting for the effects of coupling mediated by intermolecular charge transfer (CT) excitations is possible via perturbation theory or a reduction technique. Application to model configurations of pyrene dimers shows an accurate description of short-range exchange and long-range Coulomb interactions for the coupling of singlet and triplet excitons. Computational parameters, such as the choice of the exchange-correlation functional in the density-functional theory (DFT) calculations that underly the GW-BSE steps and the convergence with the number of included CT excitations, are scrutinized. Finally, an optimal strategy is derived for simulations of full large-scale morphologies by benchmarking various approximations using pairs of dicyanovinyl end-capped oligothiophenes (DCV5T), which are used as donor material in state-of-the-art organic solar cells.

Structure and energy transfer in photosystems of oxygenic photosynthesis

Oxygenic photosynthesis is the principal converter of sunlight into chemical energy on Earth. Cyanobacteria and plants provide the oxygen, food, fuel, fibers, and platform chemicals for life on Earth. The conversion of solar energy into chemical energy is catalyzed by two multisubunit membrane protein complexes, photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII). Light is absorbed by the pigment cofactors, and excitation energy is transferred among the antennae pigments and converted into chemical energy at very high efficiency. Oxygenic photosynthesis has existed for more than three billion years, during which its molecular machinery was perfected to minimize wasteful reactions. Light excitation transfer and singlet trapping won over fluorescence, radiation-less decay, and triplet formation. Photosynthetic reaction centers operate in organisms ranging from bacteria to higher plants. They are all evolutionarily linked. The crystal structure determination of photosynthetic protein complexes sheds light on the various partial reactions and explains how they are protected against wasteful pathways and why their function is robust. This review discusses the efficiency of photosynthetic solar energy conversion.

Light harvesting by lamellar chromatophores in Rhodospirillum photometricum

Purple photosynthetic bacteria harvest light using pigment-protein complexes which are often arranged in pseudo-organelles called chromatophores. A model of a chromatophore from Rhodospirillum photometricum was constructed based on atomic force microscopy data. Molecular-dynamics simulations and quantum-dynamics calculations were performed to characterize the intercomplex excitation transfer network and explore the interplay between close-packing and light-harvesting efficiency.

Long-wavelength chlorophylls in photosystem I of cyanobacteria: origin, localization, and functions

The structural organization of photosystem I (PSI) complexes in cyanobacteria and the origin of the PSI antenna long-wavelength chlorophylls and their role in energy migration, charge separation, and dissipation of excess absorbed energy are discussed. The PSI complex in cyanobacterial membranes is organized preferentially as a trimer with the core antenna enriched with long-wavelength chlorophylls. The contents of long-wavelength chlorophylls and their spectral characteristics in PSI trimers and monomers are species-specific. Chlorophyll aggregates in PSI antenna are potential candidates for the role of the long-wavelength chlorophylls. The red-most chlorophylls in PSI trimers of the cyanobacteria Arthrospira platensis and Thermosynechococcus elongatus can be formed as a result of interaction of pigments peripherally localized on different monomeric complexes within the PSI trimers. Long-wavelength chlorophylls affect weakly energy equilibration within the heterogeneous PSI antenna, but they significantly delay energy trapping by P700. When the reaction center is open, energy absorbed by long-wavelength chlorophylls migrates to P700 at physiological temperatures, causing its oxidation. When the PSI reaction center is closed, the P700 cation radical or P700 triplet state (depending on the P700 redox state and the PSI acceptor side cofactors) efficiently quench the fluorescence of the long-wavelength chlorophylls of PSI and thus protect the complex against photodestruction.

Spin selectivity in electron transfer in photosystem I

Photosystem I (PSI) is one of the most studied electron transfer (ET) systems in nature; it is found in plants, algae, and bacteria. The effect of the system structure and its electronic properties on the electron transfer rate and yield was investigated for years in details. In this work we show that not only those system properties affect the ET efficiency, but also the electrons' spin. Using a newly developed spintronic device and a technique which enables control over the orientation of the PSI monolayer relative to the device (silver) surface, it was possible to evaluate the degree and direction of the spin polarization in ET in PSI. We find high-spin selectivity throughout the entire ET path and establish that the spins of the electrons being transferred are aligned parallel to their momenta. The spin selectivity peaks at 300 K and vanishes at temperatures below about 150 K. A mechanism is suggested in which the chiral structure of the protein complex plays an important role in determining the high-spin selectivity and its temperature dependence. Our observation of high light induced spin dependent ET in PSI introduces the possibility that spin may play an important role in ET in biology.

Regulation of photosystem I light harvesting by zeaxanthin

In oxygenic photosynthetic eukaryotes, the hydroxylated carotenoid zeaxanthin is produced from preexisting violaxanthin upon exposure to excess light conditions. Zeaxanthin binding to components of the photosystem II (PSII) antenna system has been investigated thoroughly and shown to help in the dissipation of excess chlorophyll-excited states and scavenging of oxygen radicals. However, the functional consequences of the accumulation of the light-harvesting complex I (LHCI) proteins in the photosystem I (PSI) antenna have remained unclarified so far. In this work we investigated the effect of zeaxanthin binding on photoprotection of PSI-LHCI by comparing preparations isolated from wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana (i.e., with violaxanthin) and those isolated from the A. thaliana nonphotochemical quenching 2 mutant, in which violaxanthin is replaced by zeaxanthin. Time-resolved fluorescence measurements showed that zeaxanthin binding leads to a previously unrecognized quenching effect on PSI-LHCI fluorescence. The efficiency of energy transfer from the LHCI moiety of the complex to the PSI reaction center was down-regulated, and an enhanced PSI resistance to photoinhibition was observed both in vitro and in vivo. Thus, zeaxanthin was shown to be effective in inducing dissipative states in PSI, similar to its well-known effect on PSII. We propose that, upon acclimation to high light, PSI-LHCI changes its light-harvesting efficiency by a zeaxanthin-dependent quenching of the absorbed excitation energy, whereas in PSII the stoichiometry of LHC antenna proteins per reaction center is reduced directly.

Basis for a neuronal version of Grover's quantum algorithm

Grover's quantum (search) algorithm exploits principles of quantum information theory and computation to surpass the strong Church–Turing limit governing classical computers. The algorithm initializes a search field into superposed N (eigen)states to later execute nonclassical “subroutines” involving unitary phase shifts of measured states and to produce root-rate or quadratic gain in the algorithmic time (O(N^1/2)) needed to find some “target” solution m. Akin to this fast technological search algorithm, single eukaryotic cells, such as differentiated neurons, perform natural quadratic speed-up in the search for appropriate store-operated Ca²⁺ response regulation of, among other processes, protein and lipid biosynthesis, cell energetics, stress responses, cell fate and death, synaptic plasticity, and immunoprotection. Such speed-up in cellular decision making results from spatiotemporal dynamics of networked intracellular Ca²⁺-induced Ca²⁺ release and the search (or signaling) velocity of Ca²⁺ wave propagation. As chemical processes, such as the duration of Ca²⁺ mobilization, become rate-limiting over interstore distances, Ca²⁺ waves quadratically decrease interstore-travel time from slow saltatory to fast continuous gradients proportional to the square-root of the classical Ca²⁺ diffusion coefficient, D^1/2, matching the computing efficiency of Grover's quantum algorithm. In this Hypothesis and Theory article, I elaborate on these traits using a fire-diffuse-fire model of store-operated cytosolic Ca²⁺ signaling valid for glutamatergic neurons. Salient model features corresponding to Grover's quantum algorithm are parameterized to meet requirements for the Oracle Hadamard transform and Grover's iteration. A neuronal version of Grover's quantum algorithm figures to benefit signal coincidence detection and integration, bidirectional synaptic plasticity, and other vital cell functions by rapidly selecting, ordering, and/or counting optional response regulation choices.

Light-harvesting in photosystem I

This review focuses on the light-harvesting properties of photosystem I (PSI) and its LHCI outer antenna. LHCI consists of different chlorophyll a/b binding proteins called Lhca's, surrounding the core of PSI. In total, the PSI-LHCI complex of higher plants contains 173 chlorophyll molecules, most of which are there to harvest sunlight energy and to transfer the created excitation energy to the reaction center (RC) where it is used for charge separation. The efficiency of the complex is based on the capacity to deliver this energy to the RC as fast as possible, to minimize energy losses. The performance of PSI in this respect is remarkable: on average it takes around 50 ps for the excitation to reach the RC in plants, without being quenched in the meantime. This means that the internal quantum efficiency is close to 100% which makes PSI the most efficient energy converter in nature. In this review, we describe the light-harvesting properties of the complex in relation to protein and pigment organization/composition, and we discuss the important parameters that assure its very high quantum efficiency. Excitation energy transfer and trapping in the core and/or Lhcas, as well as in the supercomplexes PSI-LHCI and PSI-LHCI-LHCII are described in detail with the aim of giving an overview of the functional behavior of these complexes.

The slow S to M fluorescence rise in cyanobacteria is due to a state 2 to state 1 transition

In dark-adapted plants and algae, chlorophyll a fluorescence induction peaks within 1s after irradiation due to well documented photochemical and non-photochemical processes. Here we show that the much slower fluorescence rise in cyanobacteria (the so-called "S to M rise" in tens of seconds) is due to state 2 to state 1 transition. This has been demonstrated in particular for Synechocystis PCC6803, using its RpaC(-) mutant (locked in state 1) and its wild-type cells kept in hyperosmotic suspension (locked in state 2). In both cases, the inhibition of state changes correlates with the disappearance of the S to M fluorescence rise, confirming its assignment to the state 2 to state 1 transition. The general physiological relevance of the SM rise is supported by its occurrence in several cyanobacterial strains: Synechococcus (PCC 7942, WH 5701) and diazotrophic single cell cyanobacterium (Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142). We also show here that the SM fluorescence rise, and also the state transition changes are less prominent in filamentous diazotrophic cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. (PCC 7120) and absent in phycobilisome-less cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus marinus PCC 9511. Surprisingly, it is also absent in the phycobiliprotein rod containing Acaryochloris marina (MBIC 11017). All these results show that the S to M fluorescence rise reflects state 2 to state 1 transition in cyanobacteria with phycobilisomes formed by rods and core parts. We show that the pronounced SM fluorescence rise may reflect a protective mechanism for excess energy dissipation in those cyanobacteria (e.g. in Synechococcus PCC 7942) that are less efficient in other protective mechanisms, such as blue light induced non-photochemical quenching. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Photosynthesis Research for Sustainability: from Natural to Artificial.

Red antenna states of Photosystem I trimers from Arthrospira platensis revealed by single-molecule spectroscopy

Single-molecule fluorescence spectroscopy at 1.4K was used to investigate the spectral properties of red (long-wavelength) chlorophylls in trimeric Photosystem I (PSI) complexes from the cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis. Three distinct red antenna states could be identified in the fluorescence spectra of single PSI trimers from A. platensis in the presence of oxidized P700. Two of them are responsible for broad emission bands centered at 726 and 760nm. These bands are similar to those found in bulk fluorescence spectra measured at cryogenic temperatures. The broad fluorescence bands at ≅726 and ≅760nm belong to individual emitters that are broadened by strong electron-phonon coupling giving rise to a large Stokes-shift of about 20nm and rapid spectral diffusion. An almost perpendicular orientation of the transition dipole moments of F726 and F760 has to be assumed because direct excitation energy transfer does not occur between F726 and F760. For the first time a third red state assigned to the pool absorbing around 708nm could be detected by its zero-phonon lines. The center of the zero-phonon line distribution is found at ≅714nm. The spectral properties of the three red antenna states show a high similarity to the red antenna states found in trimeric PSI of Thermosynechoccocus elongatus. Based on these findings a similar organization of the red antenna states in PSI of these two cyanobacteria is discussed.

The role of the individual Lhcas in photosystem I excitation energy trapping

In this work, we have investigated the role of the individual antenna complexes and of the low-energy forms in excitation energy transfer and trapping in Photosystem I of higher plants. To this aim, a series of Photosystem I (sub)complexes with different antenna size/composition/absorption have been studied by picosecond fluorescence spectroscopy. The data show that Lhca3 and Lhca4, which harbor the most red forms, have similar emission spectra (λ(max) = 715-720 nm) and transfer excitation energy to the core with a relative slow rate of ∼25/ns. Differently, the energy transfer from Lhca1 and Lhca2, the "blue" antenna complexes, occurs about four times faster. In contrast to what is often assumed, it is shown that energy transfer from the Lhca1/4 and the Lhca2/3 dimer to the core occurs on a faster timescale than energy equilibration within these dimers. Furthermore, it is shown that all four monomers contribute almost equally to the transfer to the core and that the red forms slow down the overall trapping rate by about two times. Combining all the data allows the construction of a comprehensive picture of the excitation-energy transfer routes and rates in Photosystem I.

Förster energy transfer theory as reflected in the structures of photosynthetic light-harvesting systems

Förster’s theory of resonant energy transfer underlies a fundamental process in nature, namely the harvesting of sunlight by photosynthetic life forms. The theoretical framework developed by Förster and others describes how electronic excitation migrates in the photosynthetic apparatus of plants, algae, and bacteria from light absorbing pigments to reaction centers where light energy is utilized for the eventual conversion into chemical energy. The demand for highest possible efficiency of light harvesting appears to have shaped the evolution of photosynthetic species from bacteria to plants which, despite a great variation in architecture, display common structural themes founded on the quantum physics of energy transfer as described first by Förster. Herein, Förster’s theory of excitation transfer is summarized, including recent extensions, and the relevance of the theory to photosynthetic systems as evolved in purple bacteria, cyanobacteria, and plants is demonstrated. Förster’s energy transfer formula, as used widely today in many fields of science, is also derived.

The structure and function of eukaryotic photosystem I

Eukaryotic photosystem I consists of two functional moieties: the photosystem I core, harboring the components for the light-driven charge separation and the subsequent electron transfer, and the peripheral light-harvesting complex (LHCI). While the photosystem I-core remained highly conserved throughout the evolution, with the exception of the oxidizing side of photosystem I, the LHCI complex shows a high degree of variability in size, subunits composition and bound pigments, which is due to the large variety of different habitats photosynthetic organisms dwell in. Besides summarizing the most current knowledge on the photosystem I-core structure, we will discuss the composition and structure of the LHCI complex from different eukaryotic organisms, both from the red and the green clade. Furthermore, mechanistic insights into electron transfer between the donor and acceptor side of photosystem I and its soluble electron transfer carrier proteins will be given. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Regulation of Electron Transport in Chloroplasts.

Structure and function of intact photosystem 1 monomers from the cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus

Until now, the functional and structural characterization of monomeric photosystem 1 (PS1) complexes from Thermosynechococcus elongatus has been hampered by the lack of a fully intact PS1 preparation; for this reason, the three-dimensional crystal structure at 2.5 A resolution was determined with the trimeric PS1 complex [Jordan, P., et al. (2001) Nature 411 (6840), 909-917]. Here we show the possibility of isolating from this cyanobacterium the intact monomeric PS1 complex which preserves all subunits and the photochemical activity of the isolated trimeric complex. Moreover, the equilibrium between these complexes in the thylakoid membrane can be shifted by a high-salt treatment in favor of monomeric PS1 which can be quantitatively extracted below the phase transition temperature. Both monomers and trimers exhibit identical posttranslational modifications of their subunits and the same reaction centers but differ in the long-wavelength antenna chlorophylls. Their chlorophyll/P700 ratio (108 for the monomer and 112 for the trimer) is slightly higher than in the crystal structure, confirming mild preparation conditions. Interaction of antenna chlorophylls of the monomers within the trimer leads to a larger amount of long-wavelength chlorophylls, resulting in a higher photochemical activity of the trimers under red or far-red illumination. The dynamic equilibrium between monomers and trimers in the thylakoid membrane may indicate a transient monomer population in the course of biogenesis and could also be the basis for short-term adaptation of the cell to changing environmental conditions.

Photosynthetic vesicle architecture and constraints on efficient energy harvesting

Photosynthetic chromatophore vesicles found in some purple bacteria constitute one of the simplest light-harvesting systems in nature. The overall architecture of chromatophore vesicles and the structural integration of vesicle function remain poorly understood despite structural information being available on individual constituent proteins. An all-atom structural model for an entire chromatophore vesicle is presented, which improves upon earlier models by taking into account the stoichiometry of core and antenna complexes determined by the absorption spectrum of intact vesicles in Rhodobacter sphaeroides, as well as the well-established curvature-inducing properties of the dimeric core complex. The absorption spectrum of low-light-adapted vesicles is shown to correspond to a light-harvesting-complex 2 to reaction center ratio of 3:1. A structural model for a vesicle consistent with this stoichiometry is developed and used in the computation of excitonic properties. Considered also is the packing density of antenna and core complexes that is high enough for efficient energy transfer and low enough for quinone diffusion from reaction centers to cytochrome bc(1) complexes.

Effect of antenna-depletion in Photosystem II on excitation energy transfer in Arabidopsis thaliana

The role of individual photosynthetic antenna complexes of Photosystem II (PSII) both in membrane organization and excitation energy transfer have been investigated. Thylakoid membranes from wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana, and three mutants lacking light-harvesting complexes CP24, CP26, or CP29, respectively, were studied by picosecond-fluorescence spectroscopy. By using different excitation/detection wavelength combinations it was possible for the first time, to our knowledge, to separate PSI and PSII fluorescence kinetics. The sub-100 ps component, previously ascribed entirely to PSI, turns out to be due partly to PSII. Moreover, the migration time of excitations from antenna to PSII reaction center (RC) was determined for the first time, to our knowledge, for thylakoid membranes. It is four times longer than for PSII-only membranes, due to additional antenna complexes, which are less well connected to the RC. The results in the absence of CP26 are very similar to those of wild-type, demonstrating that the PSII organization is not disturbed. However, the kinetics in the absence of CP29 and, especially, of CP24 show that a large fraction of the light-harvesting complexes becomes badly connected to the RCs. Interestingly, the excited-state lifetimes of the disconnected light-harvesting complexes seem to be substantially quenched.

Self-assembly of photosynthetic membranes

Bacterial photosynthetic membranes, also known as chromatophores, are tightly packed with integral membrane proteins that work together to carry out photosynthesis. Chromatophores display a wide range of cellular morphologies; spherical, tubular, and lamellar chromatophores have all been observed in different bacterial species, or with different protein constituents. Through recent computational modeling and simulation, it has been demonstrated that the light-harvesting complexes abundant in chromatophores induce local membrane curvature via multiple mechanisms. These protein complexes assemble to generate a global curvature and sculpt the chromatophores into various cellular-scale architectures.

Designer amphiphilic short peptides enhance thermal stability of isolated photosystem-I

Stability of membrane protein is crucial during protein purification and crystallization as well as in the fabrication of protein-based devices. Several recent studies have examined how various surfactants can stabilize membrane proteins out of their native membrane environment. However, there is still no single surfactant that can be universally employed for all membrane proteins. Because of the lack of knowledge on the interaction between surfactants and membrane proteins, the choice of a surfactant for a specific membrane protein remains purely empirical. Here we report that a group of short amphiphilic peptides improve the thermal stability of the multi-domain protein complex photosystem-I (PS-I) in aqueous solution and that the peptide surfactants have obvious advantages over other commonly used alkyl chain based surfactants. Of all the short peptides studied, Ac-I₅K₂-CONH₂ (I₅K₂) showed the best stabilizing effect by enhancing the melting temperature of PS-I from 48.0°C to 53.0°C at concentration of 0.65 mM and extending the half life of isolated PS-I significantly. AFM experiments showed that PS-I/I₅K₂/Triton X-100 formed large and stable vesicles and thus provide interfacial environment mimicking that of native membranes, which may partly explain why I₅K₂ enhanced the thermal stability of PS-I. Hydrophobic and hydrophilic group length of I_xK_y had an important influence on the stabilization of PS-I. Our results showed that longer hydrophobic group was more effective in stabilizing PS-I. These simple short peptides therefore exhibit significant potential for applications in membrane protein studies.

Independent initiation of primary electron transfer in the two branches of the photosystem I reaction center

Photosystem I (PSI) is a large pigment-protein complex that unites a reaction center (RC) at the core with approximately 100 core antenna chlorophylls surrounding it. The RC is composed of two cofactor branches related by a pseudo-C2 symmetry axis. The ultimate electron donor, P(700) (a pair of chlorophylls), and the tertiary acceptor, F(X) (a Fe(4)S(4) cluster), are both located on this axis, while each of the two branches is made up of a pair of chlorophylls (ec2 and ec3) and a phylloquinone (PhQ). Based on the observed biphasic reduction of F(X), it has been suggested that both branches in PSI are competent for electron transfer (ET), but the nature and rate of the initial electron transfer steps have not been established. We report an ultrafast transient absorption study of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii mutants in which specific amino acids donating H-bonds to the 13(1)-keto oxygen of either ec3(A) (PsaA-Tyr696) or ec3(B) (PsaB-Tyr676) are converted to Phe, thus breaking the H-bond to a specific ec3 cofactor. We find that the rate of primary charge separation (CS) is lowered in both mutants, providing direct evidence that the primary ET event can be initiated independently in each branch. Furthermore, the data provide further support for the previously published model in which the initial CS event occurs within an ec2/ec3 pair, generating a primary ec2(+)ec3(-) radical pair, followed by rapid reduction by P(700) in the second ET step. A unique kinetic modeling approach allows estimation of the individual ET rates within the two cofactor branches.

Dynamics of light harvesting in photosynthesis

We review recent theoretical and experimental advances in the elucidation of the dynamics of light harvesting in photosynthesis, focusing on recent theoretical developments in structure-based modeling of electronic excitations in photosynthetic complexes and critically examining theoretical models for excitation energy transfer. We then briefly describe two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy and its application to the study of photosynthetic complexes, in particular the Fenna-Matthews-Olson complex from green sulfur bacteria. This review emphasizes recent experimental observations of long-lasting quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems and the implications of quantum coherence in natural photosynthesis.

Exciton delocalization and transport in photosystem I of cyanobacteria Synechococcus elongates: simulation study of coherent two-dimensional optical signals

Electronic excitations and the optical properties of the photosynthetic complex PSI are analyzed using an effective exciton model developed by Vaitekonis et al. [Photosynth. Res. 2005, 86, 185]. States of the reaction center, the linker states, the highly delocalized antenna states and the red states are identified and assigned in absorption and circular dichroism spectra by taking into account the spectral distribution of density of exciton states, exciton delocalization length, and participation ratio in the reaction center. Signatures of exciton cooperative dynamics in nonchiral and chirality-induced two-dimensional (2D) photon-echo signals are identified. Nonchiral signals show resonances associated with the red, the reaction center, and the bulk antenna states as well as transport between them. Spectrally overlapping contributions of the linker and the delocalized antenna states are clearly resolved in the chirality-induced signals. Strong correlations are observed between the delocalized antenna states, the linker states, and the RC states. The active space of the complex covering the RC, the linker, and the delocalized antenna states is common to PSI complexes in bacteria and plants.

Picosecond fluorescence of intact and dissolved PSI-LHCI crystals

Over the past several years, many crystal structures of photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes have been determined, and these have been used extensively to model spectroscopic results obtained on the same proteins in solution. However, the crystal structure is not necessarily identical to the structure of the protein in solution. Here, we studied picosecond fluorescence of photosystem I light-harvesting complex I (PSI-LHCI), a multisubunit pigment-protein complex that catalyzes the first steps of photosynthesis. The ultrafast fluorescence of PSI-LHCI crystals is identical to that of dissolved crystals, but differs considerably from most kinetics presented in the literature. In contrast to most studies, the data presented here can be modeled quantitatively with only two compartments: PSI core and LHCI. This yields the rate of charge separation from an equilibrated core (22.5 +/- 2.5 ps) and rates of excitation energy transfer from LHCI to core (k(LC)) and vice versa (k(CL)). The ratio between these rates, R = k(CL)/k(LC), appears to be wavelength-dependent and scales with the ratio of the absorption spectra of LHCI and core, indicating the validity of a detailed balance relation between both compartments. k(LC) depends slightly but nonsystematically on detection wavelength, averaging (9.4 +/- 4.9 ps)(-1). R ranges from 0.5 (<690 nm) to approximately 1.3 above 720 nm.

Structure of Photosystems I and II

Photosynthesis is the major process that converts solar energy into chemical energy on Earth. Two and a half billion years ago, the ancestors of cyanobacteria were able to use water as electron source for the photosynthetic process, thereby evolving oxygen and changing the atmosphere of our planet Earth. Two large membrane protein complexes, Photosystems I and II, catalyze the primary step in this energy conversion, the light-induced charge separation across the photosynthetic membrane. This chapter describes and compares the structure of two Photosystems and discusses their function in respect to the mechanism of light harvesting, electron transfer and water splitting.

Toward understanding molecular mechanisms of light harvesting and charge separation in photosystem II

Conversion of light energy in photosynthesis is extremely fast and efficient, and understanding the nature of this complex photophysical process is challenging. This review describes current progress in understanding molecular mechanisms of light harvesting and charge separation in photosystem II (PSII). Breakthroughs in X-ray crystallography have allowed the development and testing of more detailed kinetic models than have previously been possible. However, due to the complexity of the light conversion processes, satisfactory descriptions remain elusive. Recent advances point out the importance of variations in the photochemical properties of PSII in situ in different thylakoid membrane regions as well as the advantages of combining sophisticated time-resolved spectroscopic experiments with atomic level computational modeling which includes the effects of molecular dynamics.

Toward understanding molecular mechanisms of light harvesting and charge separation in photosystem II

Conversion of light energy in photosynthesis is extremely fast and efficient, and understanding the nature of this complex photophysical process is challenging. This review describes current progress in understanding molecular mechanisms of light harvesting and charge separation in photosystem II (PSII). Breakthroughs in X-ray crystallography have allowed the development and testing of more detailed kinetic models than have previously been possible. However, due to the complexity of the light conversion processes, satisfactory descriptions remain elusive. Recent advances point out the importance of variations in the photochemical properties of PSII in situ in different thylakoid membrane regions as well as the advantages of combining sophisticated time-resolved spectroscopic experiments with atomic level computational modeling which includes the effects of molecular dynamics.

Trap-limited charge separation kinetics in higher plant photosystem I complexes

Time-resolved fluorescence measurements were performed on isolated core and intact Photosystem I (PS I) particles and stroma membranes from Arabidopsis thaliana to characterize the type of energy-trapping kinetics in higher plant PS I. Target analysis confirms the previously proposed "charge recombination" model. No bottleneck in the energy flow from the bulk antenna compartments to the reaction center has been found. For both particles a trap-limited kinetics is realized, with an apparent charge separation lifetime of approximately 6 ps. No red chlorophylls (Chls) are found in the PS I-core complex from A. thaliana. Rather, the observed red-shifted fluorescence (700-710 nm range) originates from the reaction center. In contrast, two red Chl compartments, located in the peripheral light-harvesting complexes, are resolved in the intact PS I particles (decay lifetimes 33 and 95 ps, respectively). These two red states have been attributed to the two red states found in Lhca 3 and Lhca 4, respectively. The influence of the red Chls on the slowing of the overall trapping kinetics in the intact PS I complex is estimated to be approximately four times larger than the effect of the bulk antenna enlargement.