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Berger T, Guerrero V, Boeldt R, Legacki E, Roberts M, Conley AJ. Development of Porcine Accessory Sex Glands. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:462. [PMID: 38338105 PMCID: PMC10854558 DOI: 10.3390/ani14030462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2024] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Accessory sex glands are recognized as targets of human disease and may have roles in reproductive success in livestock. The current experiments evaluated the influences of endogenous steroids on the development of porcine accessory sex glands, primarily in the neonatal period. When the aromatase inhibitor, letrozole, was used to inhibit the production of endogenous estrogens in the postnatal interval, growth of the seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands was stimulated. The weights of seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands approximately doubled at 6.5 weeks of age when the reduction in endogenous estrogens began at 1 week of age (p < 0.01). However, by 20 and 40 weeks of age, the weights of accessory sex glands were similar between the letrozole-treated boars and the vehicle-treated littermates indicating the growth stimulation was a transient effect when the treatment interval was short. The presence of both classical nuclear estrogen receptors and the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor in neonatal accessory sex glands indicated multiple signaling pathways might mediate the growth inhibition by endogenous estrogens. The absence of a detectable response when the classical estrogen receptors were blocked with fulvestrant (or when the androgen receptor was blocked with flutamide) suggests that endogenous estrogens act through the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor to inhibit the development of accessory sex glands during this neonatal to early juvenile interval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trish Berger
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (V.G.); (E.L.); (M.R.)
| | - Valerie Guerrero
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (V.G.); (E.L.); (M.R.)
| | - Rosalina Boeldt
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (V.G.); (E.L.); (M.R.)
| | - Erin Legacki
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (V.G.); (E.L.); (M.R.)
| | - Megan Roberts
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (V.G.); (E.L.); (M.R.)
| | - Alan J. Conley
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
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2
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Zhang D, Wang Y, Lin H, Sun Y, Wang M, Jia Y, Yu X, Jiang H, Xu W, Sun JP, Xu Z. Function and therapeutic potential of G protein-coupled receptors in epididymis. Br J Pharmacol 2020; 177:5489-5508. [PMID: 32901914 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Revised: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Infertility rates for both females and males have increased continuously in recent years. Currently, effective treatments for male infertility with defined mechanisms or targets are still lacking. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest class of drug targets, but their functions and the implications for the therapeutic development for male infertility largely remain elusive. Nevertheless, recent studies have shown that several members of the GPCR superfamily play crucial roles in the maintenance of ion-water homeostasis of the epididymis, development of the efferent ductules, formation of the blood-epididymal barrier and maturation of sperm. Knowledge of the functions, genetic variations and working mechanisms of such GPCRs, along with the drugs and ligands relevant to their specific functions, provide future directions and a great arsenal for new developments in the treatment of male infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daolai Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, China.,Key Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yanfei Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Cells and Developmental Biology, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Hui Lin
- Key Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yujing Sun
- Key Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Mingwei Wang
- Key Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yingli Jia
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Science, Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao Yu
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Hui Jiang
- Department of Urology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China.,Department of Reproductive Medicine Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Wenming Xu
- Joint Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, SCU-CUHK, Key Laboratory of Obstetric, Gynecologic and Pediatric Diseases and Birth Defects of Ministry of Education, Sichuan University West China Second University Hospital, Chengdu, China
| | - Jin-Peng Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, China.,Key Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China.,Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Science, Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhigang Xu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Cells and Developmental Biology, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Qingdao, China.,Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center of Cell Biology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
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3
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Antalikova J, Secova P, Horovska L, Krejcirova R, Simonik O, Jankovicova J, Bartokova M, Tumova L, Manaskova-Postlerova P. Missing Information from the Estrogen Receptor Puzzle: Where Are They Localized in Bull Reproductive Tissues and Spermatozoa? Cells 2020; 9:cells9010183. [PMID: 31936899 PMCID: PMC7016540 DOI: 10.3390/cells9010183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 01/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Estrogens are steroid hormones that affect a wide range of physiological functions. The effect of estrogens on male reproductive tissues and sperm cells through specific receptors is essential for sperm development, maturation, and function. Although estrogen receptors (ERs) have been studied in several mammalian species, including humans, they have not yet been described in bull spermatozoa and reproductive tissues. In this study, we analyzed the presence of all types of ERs (ESR1, ESR2, and GPER1) in bull testicular and epididymal tissues and epididymal and ejaculated spermatozoa, and we characterize them here for the first time. We observed different localizations of each type of ER in the sperm head by immunofluorescent microscopy. Additionally, using a selected polyclonal antibody, we found that each type of ER in bull sperm extracts had two isoforms with different molecular masses. The detailed detection of ERs is a prerequisite not only for understanding the effect of estrogen on all reproductive events but also for further studying the negative effect of environmental estrogens (endocrine disruptors) on processes that lead to fertilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Antalikova
- Laboratory of Reproductive Physiology, Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics, Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 840 05 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.A.); (P.S.); (L.H.); (J.J.); (M.B.)
| | - Petra Secova
- Laboratory of Reproductive Physiology, Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics, Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 840 05 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.A.); (P.S.); (L.H.); (J.J.); (M.B.)
| | - Lubica Horovska
- Laboratory of Reproductive Physiology, Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics, Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 840 05 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.A.); (P.S.); (L.H.); (J.J.); (M.B.)
| | - Romana Krejcirova
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (R.K.); (O.S.); (L.T.)
| | - Ondrej Simonik
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (R.K.); (O.S.); (L.T.)
| | - Jana Jankovicova
- Laboratory of Reproductive Physiology, Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics, Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 840 05 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.A.); (P.S.); (L.H.); (J.J.); (M.B.)
| | - Michaela Bartokova
- Laboratory of Reproductive Physiology, Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics, Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 840 05 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.A.); (P.S.); (L.H.); (J.J.); (M.B.)
| | - Lucie Tumova
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (R.K.); (O.S.); (L.T.)
| | - Pavla Manaskova-Postlerova
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (R.K.); (O.S.); (L.T.)
- Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, Institute of Biotechnology CAS, v.v.i., BIOCEV, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +420-22438-2934
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4
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Tissue steroid levels in response to reduced testicular estrogen synthesis in the male pig, Sus scrofa. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215390. [PMID: 30986232 PMCID: PMC6464225 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Production of steroid hormones is complex and dependent upon steroidogenic enzymes, cofactors, receptors, and transporters expressed within a tissue. Collectively, these factors create an environment for tissue-specific steroid hormone profiles and potentially tissue-specific responses to drug administration. Our objective was to assess steroid production, including sulfated steroid metabolites in the boar testis, prostate, and liver following inhibition of aromatase, the enzyme that converts androgen precursors to estrogens. Boars were treated with the aromatase inhibitor, letrozole from 11 to 16 weeks of age and littermate boars received the canola oil vehicle. Steroid profiles were evaluated in testes, prostate, and livers of 16, 20, and 40 week old boars using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Testis, prostate, and liver had unique steroid profiles in vehicle-treated animals. Only C18 steroid hormones were altered by treatment with the aromatase inhibitor, letrozole; no significant differences were detected in any of the C19 or C21 steroids evaluated. Testis was the only tissue with significantly decreased free estrogens following treatment with the aromatase inhibitor; estrone and estradiol concentrations were lower (p < 0.05) in testes from 16, 20, and 40 week letrozole-treated boars. However, concentrations of the sulfated conjugates, estrone-sulfate and estradiol-sulfate, were significantly decreased (p<0.05) in 16 and 20 week boar testes, prostates, and livers from letrozole-treated boars. Hence, the distribution of estrogens between the free and conjugated forms was altered in a tissue-specific manner following inhibition of aromatase. The results suggest sulfated testicular estrogens are important estrogen precursors for the prostate, potentially enabling peripheral target tissues to synthesize free estrogens in the male pig.
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Zhai J, Geng X, Ding T, Li J, Tang J, Chen D, Cui L, Wang Q. An increase of estrogen receptor α protein level regulates BDE-209-mediated blood-testis barrier disruption during spermatogenesis in F1 mice. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:4801-4820. [PMID: 30565106 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-3784-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Deca-bromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) regulates various aspects of spermatogenesis and male fertility through its effect on estrogen receptor α (ERα), but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Because molecular mechanisms such as remodeling of the blood-testis barrier (BTB) play crucial roles in spermatogenesis, we investigated the disruptive effects of ERα agonists on the BTB in spermatogenesis. In this study, 0, 300, and 500 mg/kg/day of BDE-209 were administered to pregnant adult mice by oral gavage from gestation day 7 to postnatal day 21. SerW3 cells were treated with methylpiperidino pyrazole (MPP) for 30 min before being treated with 50 μg/mL of BDE-209. BDE-209 increases ERα in time- and dose-dependent manners and decreases formin 1 and BTB-associated protein in F1 male mice. Furthermore, BDE-209 impairs the structure and function of the BTB. Activation of ERα signaling could disrupt the BTB, leading to spermatogenesis dysfunction. The results identified the role of ERα in BTB disruption during spermatogenesis and suggested that BTB disruption occurs because of exposure to BDE-209, which could potentially affect spermatogenesis. In conclusion, Sertoli cells seem to be the primary target of BDE-209 in the perinatal period, and this period constitutes a critical window of susceptibility to BDE-209. Also, the SerW3 cell model may not be a particularly useful cell model for studying the function of the cytoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxia Zhai
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Meishan Rd 81, Hefei, 230032, China.
| | - Xiya Geng
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Meishan Rd 81, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Tao Ding
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Meishan Rd 81, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Jun Li
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Meishan Rd 81, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Jing Tang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Meishan Rd 81, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Daojun Chen
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Meishan Rd 81, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Longjiang Cui
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Meishan Rd 81, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Qizhi Wang
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Sipailou Rd 2, Nanjing, 210018, China
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6
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Malivindi R, Aquila S, Rago V. Immunolocalization of G Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor in the Pig Epididymis. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:1467-1473. [PMID: 29679442 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The presence of estrogen in the genital ducts of different mammalian species has been extensively studied and the estrogen influence on the functional activity of the male genital tract has been hypothesized. Conversely, very few data have been reported on pig excurrent ducts: the localization of classical estrogen receptors (ERα and ERβ) is scarcely known, while the expression of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPER1), a membrane estrogen receptor, is still unknown in pig. The aim of the present study was to evaluate GPER1 expression in the different regions of the mature pig epididymis, using immunohistochemistry, western blot and RT-PCR analyses. The results showed that GPER1 is mainly expressed in the epithelial cells of the corpus epididymis compared to the caput and the cauda, while muscle cells are moderately immunostained and stromal cells are unstained. The presence of GPER1 was confirmed by Western blot and RT-PCR analyses. In our study, we have demonstrated for the first time the GPER1 expression in male porcine epididymis, revealing a new mediator of estrogen signaling at this site. In conclusion, these new data suggest that estrogen action via GPER1 may contribute to sperm maturation in the corpus and sperm protection/storage in the cauda. Interestingly, the presence of GPER1 in the muscle layer may be indicative of a possible GPER1 involvement in the estrogen regulation of duct contractility. Anat Rec, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocco Malivindi
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, Cosenza, Italy
| | - Saveria Aquila
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, Cosenza, Italy.,Centro Sanitario, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, Cosenza, Italy
| | - Vittoria Rago
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, Cosenza, Italy
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7
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Krejčířová R, Maňasová M, Sommerová V, Langhamerová E, Rajmon R, Maňásková-Postlerová P. G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) in adult boar testes, epididymis and spermatozoa during epididymal maturation. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 116:113-119. [PMID: 29730010 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) is a transmembrane receptor considered as a mediator of rapid non-genomic responses. GPER has been found in the male reproductive tract of many mammalian species. However, in adult boars, GPER has been reported only in ejaculated spermatozoa. Therefore, we focused on GPER detection in testicular and epididymal tissues and sperm cells in adult boars. We found GPER in Leydig cells and seminiferous tubules of boar testes and in the secretory epithelium of epididymis. A weaker signal was visible in smooth muscle cells and spermatozoa in the epididymal tubule. In spermatozoa isolated from epididymal parts, GPER was found to localize mainly in the sperm acrosome and flagellum. We immunodetected several protein bands in the extracts of the tissues and epididymal spermatozoa. A significantly higher amount of GPER mRNA was detected in the spermatozoa from caput epididymis, whereas the mRNA expression was lower in tissues of testes and caput epididymal. Our results showed the first evidence of GPER in boar epididymal spermatozoa. Moreover, the GPER localization in adult boar testes, epididymis, and mature spermatozoa suggests the involvement of estrogens via transmembrane receptor and rapid non-genomic signaling in both the sperm development and post-testicular maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romana Krejčířová
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marie Maňasová
- Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Sommerová
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Langhamerová
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Radko Rajmon
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Pavla Maňásková-Postlerová
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic; Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, v.v.i., Biocev, Vestec, Czech Republic.
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8
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Hughes JR, Berger T. Regulation of apical blebbing in the porcine epididymis. J Anat 2017; 232:515-522. [PMID: 29205333 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Apical blebbing, a non-classical secretion mechanism, occurs in the mature porcine epididymis as part of its normal function. Proteins secreted by this mechanism contribute to the modification of the sperm plasma membrane during epididymal transit and are thought to contribute to acquisition of fertilizing ability. However, little is known about the regulation of this secretion mechanism in an in vivo model. Previous work demonstrated apical blebbing in the epididymis developed pubertally, suggesting androgens, sperm or other luminal factors regulated this process. Hence, the objective was to evaluate the hypothesized regulation of apical blebbing in the epididymis of pubertal boars by androgens and luminal factors. Androgen receptor blockade (flutamide) and surgical interventions (efferent duct ligation, orchidectomy or transection of the caput epididymis) were used to alter signaling, and the subsequent effects on apical blebbing were evaluated histologically. Apical blebbing was not altered by androgen receptor blockade with flutamide, but was significantly reduced 24 h after efferent duct ligation and after orchidectomy, treatments that eliminated luminal flow from the testis (P < 0.05). Like efferent duct ligation, epididymal transection altered luminal flow without removing the androgen source and significantly reduced the appearance of apical blebbing (P < 0.05). In conclusion, apical blebbing in the porcine epididymis appears to be regulated by luminal factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R Hughes
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Trish Berger
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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9
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Hughes J, Berger T. Development of apical blebbing in the boar epididymis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0126848. [PMID: 25996942 PMCID: PMC4440725 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0126848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2015] [Accepted: 04/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Microvesicles are of increasing interest in biology as part of normal function of numerous systems; from the immune system (T cell activation) to implantation of the embryo (invasion of the trophoblasts) and sperm maturation (protein transfer in the epididymis). Yet, the mechanisms involved in the appearance of apical blebbing from healthy cells as part of their normal function remain understudied. Microvesicles are produced via one of two pathways: exocytosis or apical blebbing also termed ectocytosis. This work quantifies the histological appearance of apical blebbing in the porcine epididymis during development and examines the role of endogenous estrogens in regulating this blebbing. Apical blebbing appears at puberty and increases in a linear manner into sexual maturity suggesting that this blebbing is a mature phenotype. Endogenous estrogen levels were reduced with an aromatase inhibitor but such a reduction did not affect apical blebbing in treated animals compared with their vehicle-treated littermates. Epididymal production of apical blebs is a secretion mechanism of functionally mature principal cells regulated by factors other than estradiol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Hughes
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Trish Berger
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
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