Enhancement of underused cervical cancer prevention services in rural Oaxaca, Mexico

Geographic variations in cervical cancer risk in San Luis Potosí state, Mexico: A spatial statistical approach

Background

Worldwide, Cervical Cancer (CC) is the fourth most common type of cancer and cause of death in women. It is a significant public health problem, especially in low and middle-income/Gross Domestic Product (GDP) countries. In the past decade, several studies of CC have been published, that identify the main modifiable and non-modifiable CC risk factors for Mexican women. However, there are no studies that attempt to explain the residual spatial variation in CC incidence In Mexico, i.e. spatial variation that cannot be ascribed to known, spatially varying risk factors.

Methods

This paper uses a spatial statistical methodology that takes into account spatial variation in socio-economic factors and accessibility to health services, whilst allowing for residual, unexplained spatial variation in risk. To describe residual spatial variations in CC risk, we used generalised linear mixed models (GLMM) with both spatially structured and unstructured random effects, using a Bayesian approach to inference.

Results

The highest risk is concentrated in the southeast, where the Matlapa and Aquismón municipalities register excessive risk, with posterior probabilities greater than 0.8. The lack of coverage of Cervical Cancer-Screening Programme (CCSP) (RR 1.17, 95 % CI 1.12–1.22), Marginalisation Index (RR 1.05, 95 % CI 1.03–1.08), and lack of accessibility to health services (RR 1.01, 95 % CI 1.00–1.03) were significant covariates.

Conclusions

There are substantial differences between municipalities, with high-risk areas mainly in low-resource areas lacking accessibility to health services for CC. Our results clearly indicate the presence of spatial patterns, and the relevance of the spatial analysis for public health intervention. Ignoring the spatial variability means to continue a public policy that does not tackle deficiencies in its national CCSP and to keep disadvantaging and disempowering Mexican women in regard to their health care.

Socioeconomic determinants of cervical cancer screening in Latin America

OBJECTIVE

To assess the impact of health care access and socioeconomic determinants on Pap smear screening in Latin America.

METHODS

Individual-level data was collected from the Demographic and Health Surveys in Bolivia, Brazil, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Peru, and Trinidad and Tobago between 1987 and 2008. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to identify socioeconomic and health care determinants of two outcomes: knowledge of Pap smears and recent Pap smear screening.

RESULTS

In all countries, the proportion of women with a recent Pap smear screening remained below 55%. Key determinants of knowledge of Pap smears were age, education, and recent doctor's visit. For recent Pap smear screening, key determinants were wealth and recent doctor's visit. Women were between 1.47 and 3.44 times more likely to have received a recent Pap smear if they had a recent doctor's visit. Even the poorest women with a recent doctor's visit were more likely to screen than the richest women without a recent visit.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that visiting a doctor is an important determinant of cervical cancer screening in Latin America. Because screening may coincide with other medical visits, physicians could effectively encourage screening.

[Strengths and weaknesses of a cervical cancer detection and control program: a qualitative evaluation in San Luis Potosi, Mexico]

OBJECTIVE

To identify, from the perspective of the health staff, the strengths and weaknesses of the program for the detection and control of cervical cancer through a qualitative assessment implemented in three health centers in the city of San Luis Potosi, Mexico, from August 2008 to November 2009.

METHODS

A qualitative evaluation was performed. Nine providers participated in the study. The providers were selected by purposeful sampling using a voluntary participation criterion. Initially, information on the characteristics and the context in which the program operates was obtained from the health centers. Later, 18 semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine informants to probe their perspective. A directed content analysis was used.

RESULTS

The strengths reported by staff were the fact that the program is free of charge, the availability of material resources, and the strategies that helped encourage the recruitment of women and their access to screening. The main weaknesses consisted of limitations in human resources and physical infrastructure, inefficient organization of activities, the staff's poor technical training, limited promotion of activities, and limitations in monitoring women with positive results.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals the need for increased human resources, changes in regulations and reorganization of the program's actions in some health centers to ensure the quality of the service, meet women's needs, and promote coverage in all the program's actions.