CD28-CD80/86 and CD40-CD40L Interactions Promote Thymic Tolerance by Regulating Medullary Epithelial Cell and Thymocyte Development

The Abundance of FOXP3, FOXP3/CD4 and CD8 Cells in the Microenvironment of Nodular Sclerosis and Mixed Cellularity Subtypes Is Associated with the Epstein-Barr Virus Status of Classic Hodgkin Lymphoma

Thymic regulatory lymphocytes (Tregs) are rare in the normal periphery where they mediate immune tolerance but accumulate in the tumor immune microenvironment (TIM), reducing the antitumor response. Subtypes of classical Hodgkin lymphoma (CHL) are characterized by a minority of malignant Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg cells (HRS) and an abundant TIM that plays a key role in modulating the disease. CHL is related to the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), whose oncogenes influence the growth of HRS. We analyzed the number of T lymphocytes expressing the regulatory marker FOXP3 in CHL with regard to EBV status. The tumor tissue of 182 patients was stained by double immunohistochemistry for FOXP3, CD4, and CD8, and the number of different phenotypes was analyzed microscopically. EBV status was determined by EBER in situ hybridization. EBV-positive CHL was confirmed in 28% of patients and was associated with mixed cellularity (MC) (p < 0.001), older age (p < 0.001), and unfavorable outcomes (p = 0.038). The number of CD8+ T lymphocytes differed according to the EBV status of MC and nodular sclerosis (NS), and was the lowest in EBV-negative NS (p = 0.001). Likewise, the numbers for FOXP3 and FOXP3/CD4 were different, and were the lowest in EBV-negative MC (p = 0.035 and p = 0.041, respectively). Values above a median of FOXP3 and CD4 are associated with longer progression-free survival (p = 0.039 and p < 0.001, respectively). EBV impacts the composition of T cell phenotypes in TIM, among which the amount of CD4 and FOXP3 is prognostically valuable.

Circular RNA MAP2K2-modified immunosuppressive dendritic cells for preventing alloimmune rejection in organ transplantation

Long-term patient and graft survival has been achieved in organ transplantation but at the expense of toxic side effects that are associated with long-term use of nonspecific immunosuppressive drugs. Discovering new regulators of dendritic cells is the key for development of an ideal treatment to prevent immune rejection. We hypothesized that knockdown of circMAP2K2 induces immunosuppressive DCs and that treatment with circMAP2K2 silenced-DCs can prevent alloimmune rejection. DCs were cultured and transfected with siRNA for circMAP2K2. circMAP2K2 levels were measured by qRT-PCR. DC's maturation and immune function were assessed by flow cytometry and mixed lymphocyte reactions. The function of circMAP2K2 was illustrated by a series of RIP and IP. The therapeutics of engineered DCs was tested in a mouse heart transplantation model. We found that circMAP2K2 was highly expressed in mature DCs. Knockdown of circMAP2K2 reduced expression of MHCII, CD40 and CD80, attenuated the ability of DCs to activate allogeneic naïve T cells, and enhanced CD4+CD25+FOXP3+ regulatory T cells (Treg). circMAP2K2-induced immunosuppressive DCs by interacting with SENP3. Treatment with circMAP2K2-knockdown DCs attenuated alloimmune rejection and prolonged allograft survival in a murine heart transplantation model. The immune suppression induced in vivo was donor-antigen specific. In conclusion, knockdown of circMAP2K2 can induce immunosuppressive DCs which are able to inhibit overactive immune response, highlighting a new promising therapeutic approach for immune disorder diseases.

Thymic expression of immune checkpoint molecules and their implication for response to immunotherapies

The thymus is responsible for generating a diverse T cell repertoire that is tolerant to self, but capable of responding to various immunologic insults, including cancer. Checkpoint blockade has changed the face of cancer treatment by targeting inhibitory molecules, which are known to regulate peripheral T cell responses. However, these inhibitory molecules and their ligands are expressed during T cell development in the thymus. In this review, we describe the underappreciated role of checkpoint molecule expression during the formation of the T cell repertoire and detail the importance of inhibitory molecules in regulating T cell lineage commitment. Understanding how these molecules function in the thymus may inform therapeutic strategies for better patient outcomes.

Leptin regulates thymic plasmacytoid dendritic cell ability to influence the thymocyte distribution in vitro

Leptin, the adipocyte-derived hormone, involved in regulating food intake and body weight, plays an important role in immunity and reproduction. Leptin signals via the specific membrane receptors expressed in most types of immune cells including dendritic cells (DCs) and thymocytes. Leptin enhances thymopoiesis and modulates T-cell-mediated immunity. Thymic plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) are predominated in the thymus. They play an important role in thymocyte differentiation. We have analyzed whether leptin mediates its effects on human thymocytes by influencing on pDCs. We used leptin at concentration corresponding to its level during II-III trimesters of physiological pregnancy. We cultivated leptin-primed pDCs with autologous thymocytes and estimated the main thymocyte subsets expressing αβ chains of the T-cell receptor (αβTCR), natural regulatory T-cells (tTreg), natural T-helpers producing interleukin-17 (nTh17) and invariant natural killer T-cells (iNKT) in vitro. We have shown that leptin augmented CD86, CD276 expressions and depressed IL-10 productions by pDCs. Leptin-primed pDCs decreased the percentage of CD4⁺CD8⁺αβTCR⁺ thymocytes, increased CD4^hiCD8^-/loαβTCR⁺ cells. pDCs cultivated with leptin decreased the number of iNKT precursors, and did not change the number of tTreg and nTh17 precursors. Thus, leptin's important role in regulation of thymic pDC abilities to influence on the thymocyte distribution was indicated in vitro.

Cutting Edge: Enhanced Antitumor Immunity in ST8Sia6 Knockout Mice

Inhibitory receptors have a critical role in the regulation of immunity. Siglecs are a family of primarily inhibitory receptors expressed by immune cells that recognize specific sialic acid modifications on cell surface glycans. Many tumors have increased sialic acid incorporation. Overexpression of the sialyltransferase ST8Sia6 on tumors led to altered immune responses and increased tumor growth. In this study, we examined the role of ST8Sia6 on immune cells in regulating antitumor immunity. ST8Sia6 knockout mice had an enhanced immune response to tumors. The loss of ST8Sia6 promoted an enhanced intratumoral activation of macrophages and dendritic cells, including upregulation of CD40. Intratumoral regulatory T cells exhibited a more inflammatory phenotype in ST8Sia6 knockout mice. Using adoptive transfer studies, the change in regulatory T cell phenotype was not cell intrinsic and depended on the loss of ST8Sia6 expression in APCs. Thus, ST8Sia6 generates ligands for Siglecs that dampen antitumor immunity.

Transcriptional and epigenetic regulation in thymic epithelial cells

The thymus is required for the development of both adaptive and innate-like T cell subsets. There is keen interest in manipulating thymic function for therapeutic purposes in circumstances of autoimmunity, immunodeficiency, and for purposes of immunotherapy. Within the thymus, thymic epithelial cells play essential roles in directing T cell development. Several transcription factors are known to be essential for thymic epithelial cell development and function, and a few transcription factors have been studied in considerable detail. However, the role of many other transcription factors is less well understood. Further, it is likely that roles exist for other transcription factors not yet known to be important in thymic epithelial cells. Recent progress in understanding of thymic epithelial cell heterogeneity has provided some new insight into transcriptional requirements in subtypes of thymic epithelial cells. However, it is unknown whether progenitors of thymic epithelial cells exist in the adult thymus, and consequently, developmental relationships linking putative precursors with differentiated cell types are poorly understood. While we do not presently possess a clear understanding of stage-specific requirements for transcription factors in thymic epithelial cells, new single-cell transcriptomic and epigenomic technologies should enable rapid progress in this field. Here, we review our current knowledge of transcription factors involved in the development, maintenance, and function of thymic epithelial cells, and the mechanisms by which they act.

CD40-CD154: A perspective from type 2 immunity

The interaction between CD40 and CD154 (CD40 ligand) is central in immunology, participating in CD4⁺ T cell priming by dendritic cells (DC), CD4⁺ T cell help to B cells and classical macrophage activation by CD4⁺ T cells. However, its role in the Th2 side of immunology including helminth infection remains incompletely understood. Contrary to viral and bacterial stimuli, helminth products usually do not cause CD40 up-regulation in DC, and exogenous CD40 ligation drives Th2-biased systems towards Th1. On the other hand, CD40 and CD154 are necessary for induction of most Th2 responses. We attempt to reconcile these observations, mainly by proposing that (i) CD40 up-regulation in DC in Th2 systems is mostly induced by alarmins, (ii) the Th2 to Th1 shift induced by exogenous CD40 ligation is related to the capacity of such ligation to enhance IL-12 production by myeloid cells, and (iii) signals elicited by endogenous CD154 available in Th2 contexts and by exogenous CD40 ligation are probably different. We stress that CD40-CD154 is important beyond cognate cellular interactions. In such a context, we argue that the proliferation response of B-cells to IL-4 plus CD154 reflects a Th2-specific mechanism for polyclonal B-cell amplification and IgE production at infection sites. Finally, we argue that CD154 is a general immune activation signal across immune polarization including Th2, and propose that competition for CD154 at tissue sites may provide negative feedback on response induction at each site.

Immunity in Atherosclerosis: Focusing on T and B Cells

Atherosclerosis is the major cause of the development of cardiovascular disease, which, in turn, is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. From the point of view of pathogenesis, atherosclerosis is an extremely complex disease. A huge variety of processes, such as violation of mitophagy, oxidative stress, damage to the endothelium, and others, are involved in atherogenesis; however, the main components of atherogenesis are considered to be inflammation and alterations of lipid metabolism. In this review, we want to focus on inflammation, and more specifically on the cellular elements of adaptive immunity, T and B cells. It is known that various T cells are widely represented directly in atherosclerotic plaques, while B cells can be found, for example, in the adventitia layer. Of course, such widespread and well-studied cells have attracted attention as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of atherosclerosis. Various approaches have been developed and tested for their efficacy.