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Ríos L, Sleeper MM, Danforth MD, Murphy HW, Kutinsky I, Rosas A, Bastir M, Gómez-Cambronero J, Sanjurjo R, Campens L, Rider O, Pastor F. The aorta in humans and African great apes, and cardiac output and metabolic levels in human evolution. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6841. [PMID: 37100851 PMCID: PMC10133235 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33675-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans have a larger energy budget than great apes, allowing the combination of the metabolically expensive traits that define our life history. This budget is ultimately related to the cardiac output, the product of the blood pumped from the ventricle and the number of heart beats per minute, a measure of the blood available for the whole organism physiological activity. To show the relationship between cardiac output and energy expenditure in hominid evolution, we study a surrogate measure of cardiac output, the aortic root diameter, in humans and great apes. When compared to gorillas and chimpanzees, humans present an increased body mass adjusted aortic root diameter. We also use data from the literature to show that over the human lifespan, cardiac output and total energy expenditure follow almost identical trajectories, with a marked increase during the period of brain growth, and a plateau during most of the adult life. The limited variation of adjusted cardiac output with sex, age and physical activity supports the compensation model of energy expenditure in humans. Finally, we present a first study of cardiac output in the skeleton through the study of the aortic impression in the vertebral bodies of the spine. It is absent in great apes, and present in humans and Neanderthals, large-brained hominins with an extended life cycle. An increased adjusted cardiac output, underlying higher total energy expenditure, would have been a key process in human evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Ríos
- Unit of Physical Anthropology, Department of Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
- Department of Physical Anthropology, Aranzadi Sciences Society, 20014, Donostia, Basque Country, Spain.
- Paleoanthropology Group, Department of Paleobiology, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC), 28006, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Meg M Sleeper
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, PO Box 100126, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0126, USA
| | - Marietta D Danforth
- Great Ape Heart Project, Detroit Zoological Society, 8450 W. 10 Mile Rd., Royal Oak, MI, 48067, USA
| | - Hayley Weston Murphy
- Great Ape Heart Project, Detroit Zoological Society, 8450 W. 10 Mile Rd., Royal Oak, MI, 48067, USA
| | - Ilana Kutinsky
- Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, 586 Pioneer Drive, Rochester, MI, 48309, USA
| | - Antonio Rosas
- Paleoanthropology Group, Department of Paleobiology, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC), 28006, Madrid, Spain
| | - Markus Bastir
- Paleoanthropology Group, Department of Paleobiology, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC), 28006, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Gómez-Cambronero
- Unit of Physical Anthropology, Department of Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ricardo Sanjurjo
- Unit of Physical Anthropology, Department of Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Laurence Campens
- Cardiology Department, Ghent University Hospital, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Oliver Rider
- University of Oxford Centre for Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Research, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Francisco Pastor
- Department of Anatomy and Radiology, University of Valladolid, 47005, Valladolid, Spain
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Kutinsky I, Duncan A, Danforth MD, Murray S, Napier J, McCain S, Murphy HW. Surgical placement of implantable cardiac loop recorders in great apes. Am J Primatol 2023; 85:e23471. [PMID: 36720698 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in zoologically managed adult great apes, accounting for 29%-77% of adult deaths in the North American population depending on the species. In an effort to better understand the underlying causes of heart disease, implantable loop recorders (ILRs) have been used in some cases to monitor great apes with suspected or known cases of arrhythmia. This is a 10-year review of the Great Ape Heart Project's experience of implanting 21 ILRs in 7 gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla; 9 total ILR devices), 5 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes, 11 total ILR devices), and 1 orangutan (Pongo abelii, 1 ILR device) in an effort to develop effective methods for surgical implantation and remote collection of the data for analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilana Kutinsky
- Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, Rochester, Michigan, USA
| | - Ann Duncan
- Detroit Zoological Society, Royal Oak, Michigan, USA
| | - Marietta D Danforth
- Great Ape Heart Project, Detroit Zoological Society, Royal Oak, Michigan, USA.,Formerly Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Suzan Murray
- Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, USA
| | - Julie Napier
- Formerly Omaha's Henry Doorly Zoo and Aquarium, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | | | - Hayley W Murphy
- Great Ape Heart Project, Detroit Zoological Society, Royal Oak, Michigan, USA.,Formerly Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Bucknell P, Dobbs P, Martin M, Ashfield S, White K. Cardiorespiratory effects of isoflurane and medetomidine-tiletamine-zolazepam in 12 bonobos (Pan paniscus). Vet Rec 2023; 192:e2589. [PMID: 36692993 DOI: 10.1002/vetr.2589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cardiovascular disease is a significant cause of mortality in captive great apes. However, data from bonobos are lacking due to a paucity of collections in Europe. Comprehensive preventive screening is required to understand the aetiopathogenesis of cardiovascular disease, but the provision of a stable and predictable anaesthetic protocol with minimal cardiovascular effects is challenging. METHODS This prospective, observational case series reports anaesthesia of 12 bonobos using hand-injected medetomidine and tiletamine-zolazepam followed by maintenance with isoflurane in oxygen. Comprehensive clinical examinations, including arterial blood gases and echocardiography were undertaken. RESULTS Induction of anaesthesia with hand injection was successful in all but one individual. Respiratory acidosis with metabolic alkalosis and respiratory alkalosis with metabolic acidosis were documented. Hypochloraemia may have contributed to non-respiratory alkalosis in one individual. Ten bonobos experienced hypotension and required haemodynamic support. Both N-terminal pro b-type natriuretic peptide and troponin I cardiac biomarkers correlated with left ventricular ejection fraction (percentage). Recovery was smooth, rapid and uneventful in all animals. LIMITATIONS The effects of the anaesthetic must be considered during echocardiographical interpretation. CONCLUSIONS The anaesthesia protocol provided a safe, predictable induction and recovery, facilitating diagnostics (including echocardiography) and minor surgical procedures. Comprehensive monitoring, including invasive blood pressure monitoring and haemodynamic support, is highly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pip Bucknell
- Twycross Zoo, East Midland Zoological Society, Atherstone, UK
| | - Phillipa Dobbs
- Twycross Zoo, East Midland Zoological Society, Atherstone, UK
| | - Mike Martin
- Veterinary Cardiology Consultancy, Kenilworth, UK
| | | | - Kate White
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
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Chong SM, Heng Y, Ahmad AA, Hsu CD. Systemic and Cardiac Amyloidosis in Captive Celebes Crested Macaques (Macaca nigra). J Comp Pathol 2022; 199:12-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2022.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Chetboul V, Concordet D, Tissier R, Vonfeld I, Poissonnier C, Alvarado MP, Passavin P, Gluntz M, Lefort S, Bourgeois A, Duby D, Hano C, Chai N. CardiOvascular examination in awake Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus): Low-stress Echocardiography including Speckle Tracking imaging (the COOLEST method). PLoS One 2022; 17:e0254306. [PMID: 35073314 PMCID: PMC8786155 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Cardiovascular diseases have been identified as a major cause of mortality and morbidity in Borneo orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus). Transthoracic echocardiography is usually performed under anesthesia in great apes, which may be stressful and increase risks of peri-anesthetic complications in case of cardiac alteration. The aim of the present pilot study was hence to develop a quick and non-stressful echocardiographic method (i.e., the COOLEST method) in awake Borneo orangutans (CardiOvascular examination in awake Orangutans: Low-stress Echocardiography including Speckle Tracking imaging) and assess the variability of corresponding variables. Materials and methods Four adult Borneo orangutans trained to present their chest to the trainers were involved. A total of 96 TTE examinations were performed on 4 different days by a trained observer examining each orangutan 6 times per day. Each examination included four two-dimensional views, with offline assessment of 28 variables (i.e., two-dimensional (n = 12), M-mode and anatomic M-mode (n = 6), Doppler (n = 7), and speckle tracking imaging (n = 3)), representing a total of 2,688 measurements. A general linear model was used to determine the within-day and between-day coefficients of variation. Results Mean±SD (minimum-maximum) images acquisition duration was 3.8±1.6 minutes (1.3–6.3). All within-day and between-day coefficients of variation but one (n = 55/56, 98%) were <15%, and most (51/56, 91%) were <10% including those of speckle tracking systolic strain variables (2.7% to 5.4%). Discussion Heart morphology as well as global and regional myocardial function can be assessed in awake orangutans with good to excellent repeatability and reproducibility. Conclusions This non-stressful method may be used for longitudinal cardiac follow-up in awake orangutans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Chetboul
- École nationale vétérinaire d’Alfort, CHUVA, Unité de Cardiologie d’Alfort (UCA), Maisons-Alfort, France
- Univ Paris Est Créteil, INSERM, IMRB, Créteil, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Didier Concordet
- Intheres, Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, Toulouse Cedex 3, France
| | | | - Irène Vonfeld
- École nationale vétérinaire d’Alfort, CHUVA, Unité de Cardiologie d’Alfort (UCA), Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Camille Poissonnier
- École nationale vétérinaire d’Alfort, CHUVA, Unité de Cardiologie d’Alfort (UCA), Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Maria Paz Alvarado
- École nationale vétérinaire d’Alfort, CHUVA, Unité de Cardiologie d’Alfort (UCA), Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Peggy Passavin
- École nationale vétérinaire d’Alfort, CHUVA, Unité de Cardiologie d’Alfort (UCA), Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Mathilde Gluntz
- École nationale vétérinaire d’Alfort, CHUVA, Unité de Cardiologie d’Alfort (UCA), Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Solène Lefort
- École nationale vétérinaire d’Alfort, CHUVA, Unité de Cardiologie d’Alfort (UCA), Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Aude Bourgeois
- Ménagerie, le Zoo du Jardin des Plantes, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Dylan Duby
- Ménagerie, le Zoo du Jardin des Plantes, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Christelle Hano
- Ménagerie, le Zoo du Jardin des Plantes, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Norin Chai
- Ménagerie, le Zoo du Jardin des Plantes, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
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THE INFLUENCE OF ANESTHESIA WITH AND WITHOUT MEDETOMIDINE ON CARDIAC STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN SANCTUARY CAPTIVE CHIMPANZEES ( PAN TROGLODYTES). J Zoo Wildl Med 2021; 52:986-996. [PMID: 34687514 DOI: 10.1638/2020-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Dependent on timing of assessment, anesthetic agents and specifically medetomidine negatively affect cardiac function in great apes. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of tiletamine-zolazepam (TZ) with and without medetomidine on cardiac structure and function in healthy chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) during a period of relative blood pressure stability. Twenty-four chimpanzees living in an African wildlife sanctuary undergoing routine health assessments were stratified by age, sex, and body mass and randomized to be anesthetized using either TZ (6 mg/kg; n = 13; seven males and six females) or a combination of TZ (2 mg/kg) and medetomidine (TZM; 0.02 mg/kg; n = 11; five males and six females). During health checks, regular heart rate and blood pressure readings were taken and a standardized echocardiogram was performed 20-30 min after induction. Data were compared between the two anesthetic groups using independent-samples t or Mann-Whitney U tests. Although heart rate (mean ± SD; TZ: 76 ± 10 bpm; TZM: 65 ± 14 bpm, P = 0.027), cardiac output (TZ: 3.0 ± 0.7 L/min; TZM: 2.4 ± 0.7 L/min, P = 0.032), and mitral A-wave velocities (TZ: 0.51 ± 0.16 cm/s; TZM: 0.36 ± 0.10 cm/s, P = 0.013) were lower in the TZM group, there were no statistically significant differences in cardiac structure or the remaining functional variables between groups. Furthermore, there were no statistical differences in systolic (TZ 114.6 ± 14.9 mmHg; TZM: 123.0 ± 28.1 mmHg; P = 0.289) or diastolic blood pressure (TZ: 81.8 ± 22.3 mmHg, TZM: 83.8 ± 20.1 mmHg; P = 0.827) between the groups during the echocardiogram. This study has shown that during a period of relative blood pressure stability, during the first 20-30 min after induction there are few differences in measures of cardiac structure and function between protocols using TZ with or without medetomidine in healthy chimpanzees.
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ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY AND DIRECT ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT IN CAPTIVE CHIMPANZEES ( PAN TROGLODYTES) DURING TWO PHASES OF AN ANESTHETIC PROTOCOL. J Zoo Wildl Med 2021; 52:479-489. [PMID: 34130390 DOI: 10.1638/2020-0022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of α-2 agonists on echocardiographic findings in great apes are not well documented, and knowledge of these effects would expand the understanding of cardiac examinations of chimpanzees under anesthesia with protocols using these drugs. Ten adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), four males and six females, underwent echocardiographic examinations after anesthesia with dexmedetomidine, midazolam, and ketamine (phase 1). Four animals required isoflurane to achieve an adequate plane of anesthesia. Atipamezole was used to antagonize dexmedetomidine, and all remaining animals were placed on isoflurane (phase 2), and then a second echocardiogram was performed. Direct arterial blood pressure was monitored during the anesthetic event. Measurements and recordings were assessed for statistically significant differences between the two phases and sex. There were no significant differences between phases or sex for any two-dimensional echocardiographic measurement of systolic function, although interventricular septum thickness at end systole approached a significant decrease from phase 1 to phase 2 (P = 0.058) when sex was considered a between-subject factor. Left ventricular outflow tract (P = 0.017) and pulmonary artery (P = 0.028) velocities increased after reversal of the dexmedetomidine. Diastolic transmitral flow was consistent with grade 3 diastolic dysfunction (median early to late ventricular filling velocities (E/A) of 2.02, interquartile range [IQR], 1.53-2.13) with a nonsignificant decrease of E velocity and increase in A velocity and decreased E/A after reversal. Trace mitral and tricuspid regurgitation were common findings in the sample population. Arterial blood pressure significantly decreased between phase 1 and phase 2 (P < 0.01). All chimpanzees entered a hypotensive state (mean arterial pressure < 60 mm Hg) during phase 2. Although limited by the small number of chimpanzees, this study showed an increase in afterload, potential diastolic dysfunction, and a decrease in blood pressure after the antagonism of dexmedetomidine. Additional studies to further assess the effects of α-2 agonists in chimpanzees are warranted.
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THORACIC RADIOGRAPHY AND TRANSTHORACIC ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY IN CLINICALLY HEALTHY RING-TAILED LEMURS ( LEMUR CATTA). J Zoo Wildl Med 2020; 51:308-320. [PMID: 32549560 DOI: 10.1638/2019-0102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiac disease has been recognized as a major cause of death in captive nonhuman primates, which necessitates diagnostic (imaging) techniques to screen for and diagnose preclinical and clinical stages of possible cardiac conditions. Echocardiography is currently the most commonly used diagnostic tool for evaluation of cardiac anatomy and function. Complete with thoracic radiography and blood levels of two cardiac biomarkers, N-terminal probrain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and cardiac troponin T (cTnT), it gives an extensive examination of the cardiorespiratory system. The purpose of this cross-sectional cohort study is to describe normal thoracic anatomy using thoracic radiography, and to provide normal values for echocardiographic measurements in 20 ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta). Additionally, cardiac biomarkers were determined. Three radiographic projections of the thoracic cavity and a complete transthoracic echocardiography were performed in 20 clinically healthy ring-tailed lemurs during their annual health examinations. Similar standard right parasternal and left apical echocardiographic images were obtained as described in dogs and cats and normal values for routine two-dimensional (2D-), time-motion (M-) and Doppler mode measurements were generated. Furthermore, a noninvasive smartphone base ECG recording and blood concentrations of cardiac biomarkers were obtained. Other radiographic measurements are provided for the skeletal and respiratory systems such as the trachea to inlet ratio and tracheal inclination. Knowledge of the normal radiographic thoracic and echocardiographic anatomy and function are fundamental for the diagnosis and follow-up of cardiac disease in affected individuals and for species screening, and will be of added value in future research in and conservation of this endangered species.
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