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Piccolo H, Beresford D, Hossie TJ. Selfish herd effects depend on prey crypsis. Biol Lett 2022. [PMCID: PMC9554721 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2022.0242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Determining why some animals form groups while others remain solitary is a longstanding goal in behavioural ecology. Group formation can help mitigate predation risk through various mechanisms, including risk dilution and group vigilance. The selfish herd hypothesis proposes that prey can reduce their risk by minimizing the area around which all points in that area are closer to them than to another conspecific (i.e. by minimizing their ‘domain of danger’ (DOD)). This hypothesis assumes that an individual's predation risk is proportional to the size of its DOD; however, the relationship between risk and proximity to conspecifics may depend on additional factors. Specifically, approaching conspecifics may be costly for prey that rely on crypsis because group formation increases detectability. Using plasticine model prey, we experimentally manipulated prey coloration as well as the DOD, and then tracked their ‘survival’ under natural field conditions. We found that an individual's predation risk increased with their DOD for conspicuous (red) prey, but decreased with the DOD in cryptic (green) prey. Our results are consistent with patterns in natural systems and indicate that the relationship between predation risk and DOD depends on additional factors like prey coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Piccolo
- Department of Biology, Trent University, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON, Canada K9J 7B8
| | - David Beresford
- Department of Biology, Trent University, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON, Canada K9J 7B8
| | - Thomas J. Hossie
- Department of Biology, Trent University, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON, Canada K9J 7B8
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2
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Habitat-dependent effects of predatory spiders on prey frogs in a Neotropical wet forest. JOURNAL OF TROPICAL ECOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1017/s0266467421000274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
AbstractIn seasonal wet Neotropical forests, many studies have suggested that species-rich terrestrial frog assemblages are regulated bottom-up by the abundance of leaf litter. However, terrestrial frogs are prey to a diverse community of predators, and no studies have tested for top-down effects of predators on this or other anuran assemblages. Here, we used an extensive field dataset to model the relative contribution of food resources, microhabitat resources and predators towards the occupancy and detection of two frog species (Craugastor bransfordii and Oophaga pumilio) at La Selva, Costa Rica. Frog occupancy was most strongly influenced by predatory spiders and secondarily influenced by the abundance of leaf litter. Predators exerted stronger effects on frogs than food resources, and frogs avoided predators more as leaf litter decreased. Detection probability was elevated when predators were present. We found support for bottom-up effects of leaf litter on the terrestrial frog assemblage, but top-down effects by predators exerted stronger effects on frog occupancy and detection. Because predator avoidance varied along a resource gradient, predator and resource effects appear to be dependent, supporting interactions between top-down and bottom-up mechanisms. Climate-driven decreases in leaf litter may drive decreased availability of frog refugia and increased interactions between frogs and predators.
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3
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What size of Neotropical frogs do spiders prey on? Biologia (Bratisl) 2020. [DOI: 10.2478/s11756-020-00603-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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4
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Background choice and immobility as context dependent tadpole responses to perceived predation risk. Sci Rep 2020; 10:13577. [PMID: 32782286 PMCID: PMC7419541 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70274-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The association of immobility and camouflage is widespread as a defensive mechanism in prey from varied taxa. However, many experiments assessing the reaction of prey to predator cues are conducted under artificial laboratory conditions. In a previous experiment we observed the tadpoles of Ololygon machadoi (Hylidae) to respond to predator visual and/or chemical cues by choosing backgrounds that improve their disruptive properties, but detected no associated reduction of movement. Here we experimentally demonstrate this response in the species' natural habitat, on backgrounds where the tadpoles are likely to achieve their best camouflage. We also tested whether previous experiences could influence both background choice and immobility in O. machadoi tadpoles. These novel experimental results suggest that a defensive behavior—i.e., reduction of movement—in these tadpoles is more strongly expressed under the natural conditions where they evolved, compared to laboratory conditions where prey and predator were brought into closer contact. Besides, previous experiences are likely to play an important role in expressed defensive responses.
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5
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Zamora-Camacho FJ. Toads modulate flight strategy according to distance to refuge. ZOOLOGY 2020; 139:125741. [PMID: 32062301 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2019.125741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Among antipredator behaviours, escaping and hiding in a refuge are widespread in nature. Frequently, threatened prey flee towards a refuge nearby, if available. Therefore, refuge proximity may affect the fleeing strategy of a prey. In this work, I tested this hypothesis in Epidalea calamita, a cursorial toad that flees by means of intermittent runs. In a linear runway in standardized conditions, toads were recorded while conducting a short-distance (refuge at 70 cm), a medium-distance (refuge at 140 cm, divided in two 70-cm tracks), and a long-distance trial (refuge at 210 cm, divided in three 70-cm tracks), in a random sequence. Video analyses permitted to calculate sprint speed and run rates (number of runs per meter) in each track. Distance to refuge affected toad flight strategy. Toads started flights at a faster speed in the short-distance trials. In the medium- and the long-distance trials, toads accelerated after the first track, seemingly not motivated by refuge proximity. In these trials, run rate was greater in the first tracks. Altogether, these findings suggest that threatened toads respond firstly with slow, intermittent movements, and only shift to less intermittent, faster sprints if the threat persists. However, run rate was lower in the short-distance trial than in the first tracks of the other trials, suggesting straighter (and faster) flight toward the refuge when it is close. The effects of refuge proximity were greater in males, which (jointly with faster sprint speed) could reflect a greater conspicuousness of males to predator resulting in better escape strategies.
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6
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Preferences for and use of light microhabitats differ among and within populations of a polytypic poison frog. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Anti-predator strategies can influence trade-offs governing other activities important to fitness. Crypsis, for example, might make conspicuous sexual display especially costly, whereas aposematism might reduce or remove such costs. We tested for correlates of anti-predator strategy in Oophaga pumilio, a polytypic poison frog with morphs spanning the crypsis–aposematism continuum. In the wild, males of visually conspicuous morphs display from conspicuous perches and behave as if they perceive predation risk to be low. We thus predicted that, given a choice of ambient light microhabitats, these males would use high ambient light conditions the most and be most likely to perch in high-light conditions. We found no evidence that differently colored male O. pumilio preferentially used bright microhabitats or that ambient light influenced perching in a morph-specific manner. Independent of light conditions, males from the most conspicuous population perched the least, but the most conspicuous individuals from a polymorphic population perched the most. These patterns suggest that preferences do not necessarily underlie among-morph differences observed in the wild. This could be explained, and remain consistent with theory, if risk aversion is shaped, in part, by experience.
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7
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Ferreira RB, Mônico AT, Zocca CZ, Santos MTT, Lírio FC, Tonini JF, Sabagh LT, Cipriano RS, Waichert C, Crump ML, Beard KH, Toledo LF, Duca C. Uncovering the Natural History of the Bromeligenous Frog Crossodactylodes izecksohni (Leptodactylidae, Paratelmatobiinae). SOUTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HERPETOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.2994/sajh-d-17-00092.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo B. Ferreira
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia de Ecossistemas, Universidade Vila Velha. CEP 29102920, Vila Velha, ES, Brazil
| | - Alexander T. Mônico
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia de Ecossistemas, Universidade Vila Velha. CEP 29102920, Vila Velha, ES, Brazil
| | - Cássio Z. Zocca
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia de Ecossistemas, Universidade Vila Velha. CEP 29102920, Vila Velha, ES, Brazil
| | - Marcus Thadeu T. Santos
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista. CEP 13506900, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernanda C.F. Lírio
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia de Ecossistemas, Universidade Vila Velha. CEP 29102920, Vila Velha, ES, Brazil
| | - João F.R. Tonini
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University. 2029 G St NW, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Leandro T. Sabagh
- Laboratório de Ecologia de Vertebrados, Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. CEP 20550013, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rafael S. Cipriano
- Instituto Nacional da Mata Atlântica. CEP 29650000, Santa Teresa, ES, Brazil
| | - Cecilia Waichert
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia de Ecossistemas, Universidade Vila Velha. CEP 29102920, Vila Velha, ES, Brazil
| | - Martha L. Crump
- Department of Biology, Utah State University. Logan, Utah, 84322, USA
| | - Karen H. Beard
- Department of Wildland Resources and the Ecology Center, Utah State University. Logan, Utah, 84322, USA
| | - Luís Felipe Toledo
- Laboratório de História Natural de Anfíbios Brasileiros, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas. CEP 13083862, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Charles Duca
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia de Ecossistemas, Universidade Vila Velha. CEP 29102920, Vila Velha, ES, Brazil
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Fanselow MS, Hoffman AN, Zhuravka I. Timing and the transition between modes in the defensive behavior system. Behav Processes 2019; 166:103890. [PMID: 31254627 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2019.103890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Antipredator defense is organized in a way that mirrors Timberlake's feeding behavior system because the goal of defense is to thwart predatory behavior. Each predatory mode has a corresponding antipredator mode. Like appetitive behavior systems, the defensive behavior system is organized around distinct modes along a spatiotemporal continuum we call the predatory imminence continuum. Behavior systems theory directs investigation toward the factors that lead to transitions between modes. In the feeding and sex systems the time between Conditional Stimulus (CS) and Unconditional Stimulus (US; e.g., CS-US interval or CS duration) is an important factor. Short CSs elicit conditional responses (CR) characteristic of more terminal modes and long CSs provoke CRs belonging to initial modes. Therefore, we asked if short CSs (10 s) would provoke CRs like the vigorous activity bursts and escape-like responses characteristic of the terminal mode of the predatory imminence continuum (Circa-Strike Behavior). Also, via analogy to appetitive systems, long CSs (3 min) were predicted to favor the intermediate mode, post-encounter behavior, which is characterized by freezing. Instead we found that both CSs produced freezing but not activity burst CRs and that freezing was actually greater with the short CS. We suggest that this difference between behavior systems flows from selection pressure that favors moving toward terminal modes in appetitive systems but away from terminal modes in the antipredator system. In addition, since appetitive reinforcers are more likely to be repeatedly experienced than predators, the learning of timing may be less relevant to defense. We also found that shock produced activity bursts and argue that when you are in the post-encounter mode (freezing) a sudden change in stimulation causes an immediate transition to circa-strike (terminal) behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Fanselow
- Staglin Center for Brain & Behavioral Health, Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90405, United States.
| | - Ann N Hoffman
- Staglin Center for Brain & Behavioral Health, Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90405, United States
| | - Irina Zhuravka
- Staglin Center for Brain & Behavioral Health, Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90405, United States
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9
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Borzée A, Yu AY, Jang Y. Variations in boldness, behavioural and physiological traits of an endangered and a common hylid species from Korea. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2018.1441192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amaël Borzée
- Laboratory of Behavioral Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- Division of EcoScience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Ai-Yun Yu
- Division of EcoScience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
| | - Yikweon Jang
- Division of EcoScience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea
- Department of Life Sciences, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea
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10
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11
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Yahnke AE, Grue CE, Hayes MP, Pearman-Gillman S. Effects of the herbicide triclopyr on metamorphic northern red-legged frogs. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2017; 36:2316-2326. [PMID: 28186362 DOI: 10.1002/etc.3767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Aquatic herbicides are used to manage invasive emergent plants in and around wetlands. Metamorphic frogs that emerge during the aquatic weed management season may be at risk of herbicide exposure. Metamorphic northern red-legged frogs (Rana aurora) were exposed to a triclopyr tank mix labeled for control of broadleaf emergent aquatic weeds such as invasive purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria). The tank mix consisted of Renovate® 3 (triclopyr triethylamine salt 44.4%), the modified vegetable oil surfactant Competitor®, and the marker dye Hi-Light® . Metamorphs were exposed to the tank mix and a clean-water control for 96 h, and then reared in clean water for 60 d. Exposure to the tank mix resulted in no treatment-related mortalities, no effects on behavior immediately post exposure, and no effects on body or liver condition indices. Exposure to the tank mix resulted in lethargy during exposure and a 1-d delay in completion of metamorphosis. Deformities present in the rearing population confounded results for some endpoints. Observed effects were minimal, especially compared with the potential for ecological impacts from unmanaged invasive plants. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:2316-2326. © 2017 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E Yahnke
- Washington Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Christian E Grue
- Washington Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, United States Geological Survey, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Marc P Hayes
- Habitat Program, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington, USA
| | - Schuyler Pearman-Gillman
- Washington Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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12
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Claunch NM, Frazier JA, Escallón C, Vernasco BJ, Moore IT, Taylor EN. Physiological and behavioral effects of exogenous corticosterone in a free-ranging ectotherm. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2017; 248:87-96. [PMID: 28237812 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2017.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In the face of global change, free-ranging organisms are expected to experience more unpredictable stressors. An understanding of how organisms with different life history strategies will respond to such changes is an integral part of biodiversity conservation. Corticosterone (CORT) levels are often used as metrics to assess the population health of wild vertebrates, despite the fact that the stress response and its effects on organismal function are highly variable. Our understanding of the stress response is primarily derived from studies on endotherms, leading to some contention on the effects of chronic stress across and within taxa. We assessed the behavioral and hormonal responses to experimentally elevated stress hormone levels in a free-ranging, arid-adapted ectotherm, the Southern Pacific rattlesnake (Crotalus helleri). Plasma CORT was significantly elevated in CORT-implanted snakes 15days after implantation. Implantation with CORT did not affect testosterone (T) levels or defensive behavior. Interestingly, we observed increased defensive behavior in snakes with more stable daily body temperatures and in snakes with higher plasma T during handling (tubing). Regardless of treatment group, those individuals with lower baseline CORT levels and higher body temperatures tended to exhibit greater increases in CORT levels following a standardized stressor. These results suggest that CORT may not mediate physiological and behavioral trait expression in arid-adapted ectotherms such as rattlesnakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie M Claunch
- Biological Sciences Department, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93401, USA.
| | - Julius A Frazier
- Biological Sciences Department, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93401, USA
| | - Camilo Escallón
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Ben J Vernasco
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Ignacio T Moore
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Emily N Taylor
- Biological Sciences Department, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93401, USA
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13
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Escape behaviour of aposematic (Oophaga pumilio) and cryptic (Craugastor sp.) frogs in response to simulated predator approach. JOURNAL OF TROPICAL ECOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1017/s0266467417000037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract:Crypsis and aposematism are common antipredator strategies that can each be coupled with behaviours that maximize predator deterrence or avoidance. Cryptic animals employ camouflage to conceal themselves within their environment and generally rely on immobility to avoid detection by predators. Alternatively, aposematic animals tend to rely on an association between conspicuous colouration and secondary defence to deter potential predators, and tend to exhibit slow movements in response to predators. The goal of the present study was to determine how cryptic Craugastor sp. and aposematic Oophaga pumilio respond to simulated human and bird model predators. Oophaga pumilio responded more often with movement to both the human (17/22) and bird (9/25) predators than Craugastor sp. (human: 2/21; bird: 0/21). The increased movement resulted in a greater average flight initiation distance, latency to move, and distance fled in O. pumilio. These findings suggest that cryptic Craugastor sp. rely on immobility to avoid detection, whereas aposematic O. pumilio utilize movement, possibly as a mechanism to increase the visibility of their warning signals to potential predators. Furthermore, O. pumilio exhibited greater movement in response to humans, suggesting that they actively avoid trampling by large threats, rather than considering them predators.
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14
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Herr MW, Graham SP, Langkilde T. Stressed snakes strike first: Hormone levels and defensive behavior in free ranging cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus). Gen Comp Endocrinol 2017; 243:89-95. [PMID: 27823955 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2016.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Revised: 10/29/2016] [Accepted: 11/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Stress is believed to be an important factor mediating animal behavior. Here we explore the relationship between concentrations of a stress hormone and defensive behavior of a snake. The cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus) is an abundant, large-bodied pitviper that is well known for its intense defensive behaviors. The defensive behaviors and hormonal ecology of cottonmouths have been studied extensively, but the interaction between these is not well understood. We conducted field trials, recording the snake's behavior and obtaining blood samples to quantify plasma CORT concentrations, both upon first encountering a snake and after a 30min standardized confinement stressor. We found that snakes with elevated levels of baseline CORT at first encounter were more likely to strike than exhibit a threat display when approached in the field. However, this behavior was not related to the magnitude of the snake's CORT increase following confinement, suggesting that more stress-prone snakes are not more defensive. Post-stressor antipredator behavior was also not related to any of our CORT measures. This study suggests that baseline CORT levels can be important correlates of defensive behavior. If this is a causative relationship, environmental challenges that increase baseline stress levels of populations may elevate cottonmouth defensive behavior. This would increase costs associated with defensive behavior (energetic, lost opportunity, etc.) and have important consequences for animal-human interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W Herr
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, USA.
| | - Sean P Graham
- Department of Biology, Geology, and Physical Sciences, Sul Ross State University, USA
| | - Tracy Langkilde
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, USA; Intercollege Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, and The Center for Brain, Behavior and Cognition, The Pennsylvania State University, USA
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15
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Rojas B. Behavioural, ecological, and evolutionary aspects of diversity in frog colour patterns. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2016; 92:1059-1080. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bibiana Rojas
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences; University of Jyvaskyla; PO Box 35 Jyväskylä FI 40001 Finland
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16
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Murray EM, Bolton SK, Berg T, Saporito RA. Arthropod predation in a dendrobatid poison frog: does frog life stage matter? ZOOLOGY 2016; 119:169-174. [PMID: 26831358 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2016.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2015] [Revised: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Frogs in the family Dendrobatidae are well known for their conspicuous colors and variable alkaloid-based chemical defenses. The aposematic coloration in dendrobatid frogs appears to deter predators with color vision, but relatively little is known about how these frogs are protected and their defenses are perceived by non-color vision dominated predators. The neotropical bullet ant Paraponera clavata and the red-legged banana spider Cupiennius coccineus are predators that avoid adults of the dendrobatid Oophaga pumilio, but readily consume non-toxic frogs. Juvenile O. pumilio possess the same warning coloration as adult O. pumilio, but may be more palatable given that they have lower quantities of defensive chemicals. This may provide juvenile O. pumilio protection from color-sighted predators, while leaving them susceptible to predators that use chemoreception. To test this hypothesis, we presented juveniles and adults of both O. pumilio and the non-chemically defended frog Craugastor bransfordii to bullet ants and banana spiders. Both bullet ants and banana spiders preyed upon C. bransfordii significantly more than on O. pumilio. Adult and juvenile C. bransfordii experienced similar predation rates by both predators. The life stage of O. pumilio significantly predicted predation by bullet ants, with juveniles being consumed significantly more often than adults. However, the life stage of O. pumilio did not predict predation by banana spiders, as no adults or juveniles were consumed. Our study provides evidence that bullet ants can detect differences in chemical defenses between juvenile and adult O. pumilio, resulting in differential predation on the more palatable juvenile frogs. The avoidance of both adults and juveniles by C. coccineus suggests the alkaloids in O. pumilio act as an effective chemical deterrent to banana spiders, regardless of quantity. Overall, our results suggest that differences in alkaloid defenses among life stages in O. pumilio correspond to differences in relative palatability to at least one arthropod predator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M Murray
- Department of Biology, Missouri State University, 901 South National Avenue, Springfield, MO 65897, USA
| | - Sarah K Bolton
- Department of Biology, John Carroll University, 1 John Carroll Boulevard, University Heights, OH 44118, USA
| | - Torsten Berg
- Department of Biology, Kalamazoo College, 1200 Academy Street, Kalamazoo, MI 49006, USA
| | - Ralph A Saporito
- Department of Biology, John Carroll University, 1 John Carroll Boulevard, University Heights, OH 44118, USA.
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17
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Cloyed CS, Eason PK. Night and day: comparing flight initiation dynamics in two closely related species of true frogs. J Zool (1987) 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. S. Cloyed
- Department of Biology University of Louisville Louisville KY USA
| | - P. K. Eason
- Department of Biology University of Louisville Louisville KY USA
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18
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A Test of Aposematism in the Dendrobatid Poison FrogOophaga pumilio: The Importance of Movement in Clay Model Experiments. J HERPETOL 2014. [DOI: 10.1670/13-027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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19
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Cooper WE, Blumstein DT. Novel effects of monitoring predators on costs of fleeing and not fleeing explain flushing early in economic escape theory. Behav Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/art083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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20
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Adaptive colouration in amphibians. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2013; 24:553-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2013.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Revised: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Stiller RB, McBrayer LD. The ontogeny of escape behavior, locomotor performance, and the hind limb in Sceloporus woodi. ZOOLOGY 2013; 116:175-81. [PMID: 23684506 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2013.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Revised: 02/20/2013] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Flight initiation distance describes the distance at which an animal flees during the approach of a predator. This distance presumably reflects the tradeoff between the benefits of fleeing versus the benefits of remaining stationary. Throughout ontogeny, the costs and benefits of flight may change substantially due to growth-related changes in sprint speed; thus ontogenetic variation in flight initiation distance may be substantial. If escape velocity is essential for surviving predator encounters, then juveniles should either tolerate short flight initiation distances and rely on crypsis, or should have high flight initiation distances to remain far away from their predators. We examined this hypothesis in a small, short-lived lizard (Sceloporus woodi). Flight initiation distance and escape velocity were recorded on an ontogenetic series of lizards in the field. Maximal running velocity was also quantified in a laboratory raceway to establish if escape velocities in the field compared with maximal velocities as measured in the lab. Finally a subset of individuals was used to quantify how muscle and limb size scale with body size throughout ontogeny. Flight initiation distance increased with body size; larger animals had higher flight initiation distances. Small lizards had short flight initiation distances and remained immobile longer, thus relying on crypsis for concealment. Escape velocity in the field did not vary with body size, yet maximum velocity in the lab did increase with size. Hind limb morphology scaled isometrically with body size. Isometric scaling of the hind limb elements and its musculature, coupled with similarities in sprint and escape velocity across ontogeny, demonstrate that smaller S. woodi must rely on crypsis to avoid predator encounters, whereas adults alter their behavior via larger flight initiation distance and lower (presumably less expensive) escape velocities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reed B Stiller
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, P.O. Box 8042, Statesboro, GA 30460, USA
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Isaac LA, Gregory PT. Can snakes hide in plain view? Chromatic and achromatic crypsis of two colour forms of the Western Terrestrial Garter Snake (Thamnophis elegans). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leigh Anne Isaac
- Department of Biology; University of Victoria; PO Box 3020; Victoria; BC; V8W 3N5; Canada
| | - Patrick T. Gregory
- Department of Biology; University of Victoria; PO Box 3020; Victoria; BC; V8W 3N5; Canada
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Camp MJ, Rachlow JL, Woods BA, Johnson TR, Shipley LA. When to Run and When to Hide: The Influence of Concealment, Visibility, and Proximity to Refugia on Perceptions of Risk. Ethology 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Meghan J. Camp
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences; University of Idaho; Moscow; ID; USA
| | - Janet L. Rachlow
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences; University of Idaho; Moscow; ID; USA
| | - Bonnie A. Woods
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences; University of Idaho; Moscow; ID; USA
| | | | - Lisa A. Shipley
- School of the Environment; Washington State University; Pullman; WA; USA
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Cooper Jr WE, Pérez-Mellado V. Historical influence of predation pressure on escape by Podarcis lizards in the Balearic Islands. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01933.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Lücking R, Mata-Lorenzen J, Dauphin L. G. Epizoic liverworts, lichens and fungi growing on Costa Rican Shield Mantis (Mantodea:Choeradodis). STUDIES ON NEOTROPICAL FAUNA AND ENVIRONMENT 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/01650521.2010.532387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Cooper, WE, Sherbrooke WC. Crypsis influences escape decisions in the Round-tailed Horned Lizard (Phrynosoma modestum). CAN J ZOOL 2010. [DOI: 10.1139/z10-068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Flight initiation distance (predator–prey distance when escape begins) increases as predation risk increases. Prey should have longer flight initiation distance when their background, movement, or current posture reduces crypsis. Flight initiation distance of ectotherms may increase at lower body temperature to compensate for slower running speed. However, for cryptic prey, fleeing might increase the probability of being detected. The Round-tailed Horned Lizard ( Phrynosoma modestum Girard, 1852) is eucryptic and resembles small stones. We predicted that flight initiation distance by P. modestum is shorter among stones than on uniform sand. Because movement and upright posture disrupt crypsis, we predicted that flight initiation distance is greater after movement and when standing than when still and lying on the ground. As predicted, flight initiation distances were shorter on a rocky than sandy area, when lying flat than standing, and while immobile than after moving. We measured running speed and flight initiation distance to determine relationships among body temperature, speed, and escape decisions. Running speed and flight initiation distance were reduced at lower body temperature, suggesting that crypsis reinforced by immobility is more advantageous than longer flight initiation distance for cool, slow lizards. The lizards adjusted escape decisions to current effectiveness of crypsis and escape ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- William E. Cooper,
- Department of Biology, Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805, USA
- Southwestern Research Station, American Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 16553, Portal, AZ 85632, USA
| | - Wade C. Sherbrooke
- Department of Biology, Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805, USA
- Southwestern Research Station, American Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 16553, Portal, AZ 85632, USA
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Royan A, Muir AP, Downie JR. Variability in escape trajectory in the Trinidadian stream frog and two treefrogs at different life-history stages. CAN J ZOOL 2010. [DOI: 10.1139/z10-059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Most studies investigating anuran jumping behaviour have examined the relationship between body size and parameters such as jump distance, velocity, and force; however, few have investigated jump trajectory. We constructed an arena to determine escape trajectories in relation to the direction of an artificial stimulus in the aromobatid Mannophryne trinitatis (Garman, 1888) and two treefrogs, Trachycephalus venulosus (Laurenti, 1768) and Hypsiboas geographicus (Spix, 1824). Three categories of M. trinitatis (i.e., tadpole-transporting males, nontransporting males, and females) and three ontogenetic stages of the treefrogs were compared. Mannophryne trinitatis escaped in a broadly predictable trajectory away from the stimulus, although jump trajectories were highly variable, suggesting a degree of unpredictability. No systematic differences were found between categories of M. trinitatis, adding to the findings of previous studies that larval transport incurs no measurable locomotor costs on antipredatory jumping behaviour with regards to jump angle and distance. The treefrogs showed similar patterns of escape trajectory and unpredictability. There were no consistent differences between life-history stages and no relationship between distance jumped and angular deviation. In M. trinitatis and H. geographicus, there was some evidence of bimodality in escape trajectory. The results are discussed in the context of other work on escape trajectories and the concept of “protean” defence strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Royan
- Division of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - A. P. Muir
- Division of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - J. R. Downie
- Division of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
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Cooper, Jr. WE, Hawlena D, Pérez-Mellado V. Islet tameness: escape behavior and refuge use in populations of the Balearic lizard (Podarcis lilfordi) exposed to differing predation pressure. CAN J ZOOL 2009. [DOI: 10.1139/z09-077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Prey often exhibit reduced escape behavior on islands where predators are absent or scarce. Models of escape and refuge use predict that prey from populations having lower predation pressure have shortened flight initiation distance (FID; distance between a predator and a prey when escape begins), reduced distance fled and tendency to enter refuge, and shortened hiding time before emerging from refuge. By ourselves simulating approaching predators, we tested these predictions for two populations of the Balearic lizard, Podarcis lilfordi (Müller, 1927), on the islets of Rei (higher predation pressure) and Aire (lower) adjacent to Menorca. FID, distance fled, and hiding time were shorter and probability of entering refuge was lower on Aire than on Rei, confirming all predictions. All effect sizes were large, indicating major differences in antipredatory behavior between islets. These findings are consistent with data for other lizards on FID and limited data on distance fled and refuge entry. The effect of predation pressure on hiding time is a novel finding. Our results and those of previous studies suggest that relaxation of predation pressure leads to reduced natural selection for maintenance of antipredatory behavior at all stages of predator–prey interactions over a relatively short time span.
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Affiliation(s)
- William E. Cooper, Jr.
- Department of Biology, Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805 USA
- School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, 195 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidad de Salamanca, 37071 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Dror Hawlena
- Department of Biology, Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805 USA
- School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, 195 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidad de Salamanca, 37071 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Valentín Pérez-Mellado
- Department of Biology, Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805 USA
- School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, 195 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidad de Salamanca, 37071 Salamanca, Spain
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Cooper Jr WE, Caldwell JP, Vitt LJ. Risk Assessment and Withdrawal Behavior by Two Species of Aposematic Poison Frogs,Dendrobates auratusandOophaga pumilio, on Forest Trails. Ethology 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.2009.01615.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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