1
|
Bartholomew JL, Alexander JD, Hallett SL, Alama-Bermejo G, Atkinson SD. Ceratonova shasta: a cnidarian parasite of annelids and salmonids. Parasitology 2022; 149:1862-1875. [PMID: 36081219 PMCID: PMC11010528 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182022001275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The myxozoan Ceratonova shasta was described from hatchery rainbow trout over 70 years ago. The parasite continues to cause severe disease in salmon and trout, and is recognized as a barrier to salmon recovery in some rivers. This review incorporates changes in our knowledge of the parasite's life cycle, taxonomy and biology and examines how this information has expanded our understanding of the interactions between C. shasta and its salmonid and annelid hosts, and how overarching environmental factors affect this host–parasite system. Development of molecular diagnostic techniques has allowed discrimination of differences in parasite genotypes, which have differing host affinities, and enabled the measurement of the spatio-temporal abundance of these different genotypes. Establishment of the C. shasta life cycle in the laboratory has enabled studies on host–parasite interactions and the availability of transcriptomic data has informed our understanding of parasite virulence factors and host defences. Together, these advances have informed the development of models and management actions to mitigate disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jerri L. Bartholomew
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Nash Hall 226, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
| | - Julie D. Alexander
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Nash Hall 226, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
| | - Sascha L. Hallett
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Nash Hall 226, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
| | - Gema Alama-Bermejo
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Center of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Branisovska 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
- Division of Fish Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Stephen D. Atkinson
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Nash Hall 226, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Robinson HE, Alexander JD, Bartholomew JL, Hallett SL, Hetrick NJ, Perry RW, Som NA. Using a mechanistic framework to model the density of an aquatic parasite Ceratonova shasta. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13183. [PMID: 35441056 PMCID: PMC9013479 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Ceratonova shasta is a myxozoan parasite endemic to the Pacific Northwest of North America that is linked to low survival rates of juvenile salmonids in some watersheds such as the Klamath River basin. The density of C. shasta actinospores in the water column is typically highest in the spring (March-June), and directly influences infection rates for outmigrating juvenile salmonids. Current management approaches require quantities of C. shasta density to assess disease risk and estimate survival of juvenile salmonids. Therefore, we developed a model to simulate the density of waterborne C. shasta actinospores using a mechanistic framework based on abiotic drivers and informed by empirical data. The model quantified factors that describe the key features of parasite abundance during the period of juvenile salmon outmigration, including the week of initial detection (onset), seasonal pattern of spore density, and peak density of C. shasta. Spore onset was simulated by a bio-physical degree-day model using the timing of adult salmon spawning and accumulation of thermal units for parasite development. Normalized spore density was simulated by a quadratic regression model based on a parabolic thermal response with river water temperature. Peak spore density was simulated based on retained explanatory variables in a generalized linear model that included the prevalence of infection in hatchery-origin Chinook juveniles the previous year and the occurrence of flushing flows (≥171 m3/s). The final model performed well, closely matched the initial detections (onset) of spores, and explained inter-annual variations for most water years. Our C. shasta model has direct applications as a management tool to assess the impact of proposed flow regimes on the parasite, and it can be used for projecting the effects of alternative water management scenarios on disease-induced mortality of juvenile salmonids such as with an altered water temperature regime or with dam removal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H. Eve Robinson
- Arcata Fish and Wildlife Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arcata, CA, United States of America,California State Polytechnic University, Humboldt, Arcata, CA, United States of America
| | - Julie D. Alexander
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States of America
| | - Jerri L. Bartholomew
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States of America
| | - Sascha L. Hallett
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States of America
| | - Nicholas J. Hetrick
- Arcata Fish and Wildlife Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arcata, CA, United States of America
| | - Russell W. Perry
- U.S. Geological Survey, Western Fisheries Research Center, Cook, WA, United States of America
| | - Nicholas A. Som
- Arcata Fish and Wildlife Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arcata, CA, United States of America,California State Polytechnic University, Humboldt, Arcata, CA, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Stinson MET, Atkinson SD, Bartholomew JL. Widespread Distribution of Ceratonova shasta (Cnidaria: Myxosporea) Genotypes Indicates Evolutionary Adaptation to its Salmonid Fish Hosts. J Parasitol 2018; 104:645-650. [DOI: 10.1645/18-79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew E. T. Stinson
- Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission, Tribal Fish Health Laboratory, 6730 Martin Way East, Olympia, Washington 98516
| | - Stephen D. Atkinson
- Department of Microbiology, 226 Nash Hall, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
| | - Jerri L. Bartholomew
- Department of Microbiology, 226 Nash Hall, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Thabet A, Tlig-Zouari S, Al Omar SY, Mansour L. Molecular and morphological characterisation of two species of the genus Ellipsomyxa Køie, 2003 (Ceratomyxidae) from the gall-bladder of Liza saliens (Risso) off Tunisian coasts of the Mediterranean. Syst Parasitol 2016; 93:601-11. [DOI: 10.1007/s11230-016-9647-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2016] [Accepted: 05/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
5
|
Foott JS, Stone R, Fogerty R, True K, Bolick A, Bartholomew JL, Hallett SL, Buckles GR, Alexander JD. Production of Ceratonova shasta Myxospores from Salmon Carcasses: Carcass Removal Is Not a Viable Management Option. JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH 2016; 28:75-84. [PMID: 27064587 DOI: 10.1080/08997659.2015.1103803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Severe infection by the endemic myxozoan parasite, Ceratonova (synonym, Ceratomyxa) shasta, has been associated with declines in and impaired recovery efforts of populations of fall-run Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha in the Klamath River, California. The parasite has a complex life cycle involving a polychaete worm host as well as a salmon host. Myxospore transmission of this parasite, from salmon to polychaete, is a life cycle step during which there is a potential for applied disease management. A 3-year data set on prevalence, intensity, and spore characteristics of C. shasta myxospores was obtained from adult Chinook Salmon carcasses surveyed in the main stem of the Klamath River and three of its tributaries, Bogus Creek and the Shasta and Trinity rivers. Annual prevalence of myxospore detection in salmon intestines ranged from 22% to 52%, and spore concentration values per intestinal scraping ranged from 3.94 × 10(2) to 1.47 × 10(7) spores. A prevalence of 7.3% of all carcasses examined produced >5.0 × 10(5) spores, and these carcasses with "high" spore counts accounted for 76-95% of the total spores in a given spawning season. Molecular analysis of visually negative carcasses showed that 45-87% of these samples had parasite DNA, indicating they contained either low spore numbers or presporogonic stages of the parasite. Myxospores were rarely found in carcasses of freshly spawned adults but were common in decomposed carcasses of both sexes. The date of collection or age (based indirectly on FL) did not influence detection. The longer prespawn residence time for spring-run Chinook Salmon compared with that for fall-run Chinook Salmon in the Trinity River was associated with higher spore loads. The dye exclusion method for assessing spore viability in fresh smears indicated an inverse relationship in spore integrity and initial spore concentration. A carcass-removal pilot project in Bogus Creek for 6 weeks in the fall of 2008 (907 carcasses removed) and 2009 (1,799 carcasses removed) failed to measurably influence the DNA quantity of C. shasta in targeted waters. Combined with the high numbers of carcasses that contributed myxospores, we therefore deemed that this labor-intensive approach is not a viable management option to reduce the infectivity of C. shasta in Chinook Salmon in the Klamath River. Received January 23, 2015; accepted September 28, 2015.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J S Foott
- a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , California-Nevada Fish Health Center , 24411 Coleman Fish Hatchery Road, Anderson , California 96007 , USA
| | - R Stone
- a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , California-Nevada Fish Health Center , 24411 Coleman Fish Hatchery Road, Anderson , California 96007 , USA
| | - R Fogerty
- a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , California-Nevada Fish Health Center , 24411 Coleman Fish Hatchery Road, Anderson , California 96007 , USA
| | - K True
- a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , California-Nevada Fish Health Center , 24411 Coleman Fish Hatchery Road, Anderson , California 96007 , USA
| | - A Bolick
- a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , California-Nevada Fish Health Center , 24411 Coleman Fish Hatchery Road, Anderson , California 96007 , USA
| | - J L Bartholomew
- b Department of Microbiology , Oregon State University , 226 Nash Hall, Corvallis , Oregon 97331 , USA
| | - S L Hallett
- b Department of Microbiology , Oregon State University , 226 Nash Hall, Corvallis , Oregon 97331 , USA
| | - G R Buckles
- b Department of Microbiology , Oregon State University , 226 Nash Hall, Corvallis , Oregon 97331 , USA
| | - J D Alexander
- b Department of Microbiology , Oregon State University , 226 Nash Hall, Corvallis , Oregon 97331 , USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Dolan BP, Fisher KM, Colvin ME, Benda SE, Peterson JT, Kent ML, Schreck CB. Innate and adaptive immune responses in migrating spring-run adult chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 48:136-144. [PMID: 26581919 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2015.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Revised: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Adult Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) migrate from salt water to freshwater streams to spawn. Immune responses in migrating adult salmon are thought to diminish in the run up to spawning, though the exact mechanisms for diminished immune responses remain unknown. Here we examine both adaptive and innate immune responses as well as pathogen burdens in migrating adult Chinook salmon in the Upper Willamette River basin. Messenger RNA transcripts encoding antibody heavy chain molecules slightly diminish as a function of time, but are still present even after fish have successfully spawned. In contrast, the innate anti-bacterial effector proteins present in fish plasma rapidly decrease as spawning approaches. Fish also were examined for the presence and severity of eight different pathogens in different organs. While pathogen burden tended to increase during the migration, no specific pathogen signature was associated with diminished immune responses. Transcript levels of the immunosuppressive cytokines IL-10 and TGF beta were measured and did not change during the migration. These results suggest that loss of immune functions in adult migrating salmon are not due to pathogen infection or cytokine-mediated immune suppression, but is rather part of the life history of Chinook salmon likely induced by diminished energy reserves or hormonal changes which accompany spawning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian P Dolan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, 105 Magruder Hall, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA.
| | - Kathleen M Fisher
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, 104 Nash Hall, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Michael E Colvin
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, 104 Nash Hall, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Susan E Benda
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, 104 Nash Hall, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - James T Peterson
- U.S. Geological Survey, Oregon Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, 104 Nash Hall, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Michael L Kent
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, 220 Nash Hall, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - Carl B Schreck
- U.S. Geological Survey, Oregon Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, 104 Nash Hall, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| |
Collapse
|