Plasmodium species infecting lizards in the Brazilian Cerrado: Identification and description of a novel species, Plasmodium brasiliensis n. sp

Parasites of the genus Plasmodium, responsible for lizard malaria, are widely distributed and taxonomically diverse. Molecular techniques provide valuable insights into the evolutionary relationships of Plasmodium species and lineages. However, the available data are still scarce, emphasizing the need for taxonomy-focused studies. We investigated the occurrence of Plasmodium infection in free-living lizards in the Brazilian Cerrado using an integrative approach based on the amplification/sequencing of the Plasmodium cytb gene and microscopic analysis. Among 302 lizards screened, 61 (20.2%) tested positive in the molecular screening, including 18 with concordant results in microscopy. We recovered 16 sequences in the first molecular survey of this host group in the biome. Our findings unveil a variety of Plasmodium species, some of which were previously undocumented in this region. We describe new lineages of Plasmodium ouropretensis, P. tropiduri, P. carmelinoi, and also report a new species, herein named as Plasmodium brasiliensis n. sp. The infection by Plasmodium sp. in Hoplocercus spinosus represents the first description of Apicomplexa organisms in this species. Furthermore, our results open remarkable possibilities for extensive studies in a field unexplored for many years.

From the first descriptions to recent advances: 115 years of reptile Plasmodium research in the Neotropics

Haemosporida research started in the 19th century with the description of Plasmodium and other related parasites infecting mammals and birds. Here, we highlight the pioneering contributions of Henrique Aragão and Arthur Neiva in describing the first two Plasmodium species in lizards from the New World, Plasmodium diploglossi and Plasmodium tropiduri, published in the first printed issue of Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz in April 1909. We use these discoveries as a background to explore some historical and taxonomic aspects of Plasmodium species infecting reptiles, with a particular emphasis on the advancements made over the past 115 years in the Neotropics. Our review underscores the complexities and persistent challenges in the taxonomic classification of reptile haemosporidians and discusses some scientific advances in the field that improved our understanding of the biology and evolution of these parasites.

Polychromophilus (Haemosporida: Plasmodiidae): A review of association with bats (Mammalia, Chiroptera) and the first record in the Neotropical bat, Myotis albescens (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) from Colombia

Some species within the family Plasmodiidae (Haemosporida) have been extensively studied due to their implications for human health. However, for other haemosporidians that infect wild animals the knowledge is limited. Species within the genus Polychromophilus have thus far been documented exclusively as hemoparasites of bats. Records of Polychromophilus are primarily from Africa, Europe, and Southeast Asia, with limited information available for the Americas. Here, we assessed the state of knowledge on Polychromophilus species infecting bats worldwide and searched for the presence of Polychromophilus in blood samples of neotropical bats from Colombia. We found a total of 65 records of Polychromophilus in 46 bat species belonging to the families Emballonuridae, Hipposideridae, Miniopteridae, Rhinolophidae, Rhinonycteridae, and Vespertilionidae worldwide, except for Antarctica. In the Americas, records of the genus Polychromophilus are exclusively from Vespertilionidae bats in Brazil, Colombia, the United States, and Panama. The morphological and molecular analyses of blood from 125 bats, belonging to 39 species and captured in seven localities within the departments of Arauca and Caldas (Colombia), confirmed the presence of Polychromophilus deanei in a silver-tipped myotis, Myotis albescens (Vespertilionidae). This finding represents the first morphological and molecular confirmation of P. deanei in the Americas. Additionally, it expands the knowledge on the diversity and distribution of Polychromophilus in Neotropical bats.

Molecular characterization of haemosporidian and haemogregarine diversity in southwestern Iberian amphibians and reptiles

The knowledge of the diversity and geographic distribution of parasite species is the first step towards understanding processes of global epidemiology and species conservation. Despite recent increases in research on haemosporidian and haemogregarine parasites of reptiles and amphibians, we still know little about their diversity and parasite-host interactions, especially in the Iberian Peninsula, where a few studies have been conducted. In this study, the haemosporidian and haemogregarine diversity and phylogenetic relationships of the parasites in southwestern Iberian amphibians and reptiles were assessed using PCR approaches on blood samples of 145 individuals from five amphibian and 13 reptile species. The amphibians did not present any of both groups of parasites studied. Regarding reptiles, five Hepatozoon, one Haemogregarina, and one Haemocystidum haplotypes were found infecting four different species, revealing new host records for these parasites. Among them, we found one new Haemocystidium haplotype and three new and a previously reported Hepatozoon haplotype from a north African snake. The latter finding suggests that some Hepatozoon parasites may not be host-specific and have large geographic ranges even crossing geographical barriers. These results increased the knowledge about the geographic distribution and the number of known host species of some reptile apicomplexan parasites, highlighting the great unexplored diversity of them in this region.

Plasmodium ouropretensis, n. sp., a new case of non-erythrocytic species within lizard malaria parasites

Delimiting and describing Plasmodium species in reptiles remains a pressing problem in Haemosporida taxonomy. The few morphological characters used can overlap, and the significance of some life-history traits is not fully understood. Morphologically identical lizard Plasmodium forms have been reported infecting different cell types (red and white blood cells) in the same host and have been considered the same species. An example is Plasmodium tropiduri tropiduri, a species known to infect erythrocytes, thrombocytes and lymphocyte-like cells. Here, both forms of P. t. tropiduri were analysed using light microscope-based morphological characteristics and phylogenetic inferences based on almost complete mitochondrial genomes of parasites naturally infecting lizards in southeastern Brazil. Although morphologically similar, two distinct phylogenetic lineages infecting erythrocytes and non-erythrocytic cells were found. The lineage found in the erythrocytes forms a monophyletic group with species from Colombia. However, the non-erythrocytic lineage shares a recent common ancestor with Plasmodium leucocytica, which infects leucocytes in lizards from the Caribbean islands. Here, Plasmodium ouropretensis n. sp. is described as a species that infects thrombocytes and lymphocyte-like cells.

Molecular and pathological investigations of Plasmodium parasites infecting striped forest whiptail lizards (Kentropyx calcarata) in Brazil

The genus Plasmodium (Plasmodiidae) ranks among the most widespread intracellular protozoan parasites affecting a wide range of mammals, birds, and reptiles. Little information is available about lizard malaria parasites in South America, and the pathological features of the resulting parasitoses remain unknown or poorly understood. To partially fill in these gaps, we conducted blood smear analysis, molecular detection, and phylogenetic and pathological investigations in lizards inhabiting an Atlantic Forest fragment in Paraiba, Brazil. From 104 striped forest whiptails (Kentropyx calcarata) screened for the presence of haemosporidian parasites, 67 (64.4%) were positive. Four of five Amazon lava lizards (Strobilurus torquatus) we collected from this same area were also positive. A total of 27 forest whiptails were infected with a new genetic lineage of Plasmodium kentropyxi and other Plasmodium lineages were also detected. Histopathological analysis in infected forest whiptails revealed systemic intraerythrocytic Plasmodium stages, mainly gametocytes, in the liver, lung, and heart. Also, the liver of infected lizards had mild to moderate levels of Kupffer cell and melanomacrophage hypertrophy/hyperplasia with sinusoid leukocytosis. Overall, our findings suggest that an endemic Plasmodium species causes histological alterations that are not related to major pathological processes in striped forest whiptails.