SNHG8 is identified as a key regulator of epstein-barr virus(EBV)-associated gastric cancer by an integrative analysis of lncRNA and mRNA expression

The Oncogenic Role of VWA8-AS1, a Long Non-Coding RNA, in Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma: An Integrative Transcriptome and Functional Analysis

Dysregulated long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) expression is linked to various cancers and may be influenced by oncogenic Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, a known and detectable risk factor in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) patients. However, research on the oncogenic role of EBV-induced lncRNAs in OSCC is limited. To identify lncRNA-associated EBV infection and OSCC carcinogenesis, the differential expression of RNA-seq datasets from paired normal adjacent and OSCC tissues, and microarray data from EBV-negative and EBV-positive SCC25 cells, were identified and selected, respectively, for interaction, functional analysis, and CCK-8 cell proliferation, wound healing, and invasion Transwell assays. In OSCC tissues, 6731 differentially expressed lncRNAs were identified when compared to normal tissues from RNA-seq datasets, with 295 linked to EBV-induced OSCC carcinogenesis from microarray datasets. The EBV-induced lncRNA VWA8-AS1 showed significant upregulation in EBV-positive SCC25 cells and EBV-infected adjacent and OSCC tissue samples. VWA8-AS1 potentially promotes OSCC via the lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA axis or direct protein interactions, affecting various cellular processes. Studies in OSCC cell lines revealed that elevated VWA8-AS1 levels enhanced cell migration and invasion. This study demonstrates VWA8-AS1's contribution to tumor progression and possible interactions with its targets in OSCC, offering insights for future research on functional mechanisms and therapeutic targets in EBV-associated OSCC.

Functional role of lncRNAs in gastrointestinal malignancies: the peculiar case of small nucleolar RNA host gene family

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play crucial roles in normal physiology and are often de-regulated in disease states such as cancer. Recently, a class of lncRNAs referred to as the small nucleolar RNA host gene (SNHG) family have emerged as important players in tumourigenesis. Here, we discuss new findings describing the role of SNHGs in gastrointestinal tumours and summarize the three main functions by which these lncRNAs promote carcinogenesis, namely: competing with endogenous RNAs, modulating protein function, and regulating epigenetic marking. Furthermore, we discuss how SNHGs participate in different hallmarks of cancer, and how this class of lncRNAs may serve as potential biomarkers in cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Role of lncRNAs in Helicobacter pylori and Epstein-Barr virus associated gastric cancers

Helicobacter pylori infection is a risk factor for the development of gastric cancer (GC), and the role of co-infection with viruses, such as Epstein-Barr virus, in carcinogenesis cannot be ignored. Furthermore, it is now known that genetic factors such as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are involved in many diseases, including GC. On the other side, they can also be used as therapeutic goals. Modified lncRNAs can cause aberrant expression of genes encoding proximal proteins, which are essential for the development of carcinoma. In this review, we present the most recent studies on lncRNAs in GC, concentrating on their roles in H. pylori and EBV infections, and discuss some of the molecular mechanisms of these GC-related pathogens. There was also a discussion of the research gaps and future perspectives.

The Functions and Mechanisms of Long Non-coding RNA SNHGs in Gastric Cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common malignancies worldwide. Despite significant advancements in surgical and adjuvant treatments, patient prognosis remains unsatisfactory. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of RNA molecules that lack protein-coding capacity but can engage in the malignant biological behaviors of tumors through various mechanisms. Among them, small nucleolar host genes (SNHGs) represent a subgroup of lncRNAs. Studies have revealed their involvement not only in gastric cancer cell proliferation, invasion, migration, epithelial- mesenchymal transition (EMT), and apoptosis but also in chemotherapy resistance and tumor stemness. This review comprehensively summarizes the biological functions, molecular mechanisms, and clinical significance of SNHGs in gastric cancer. It provides novel insights into potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for the exploration of gastric cancer.

LncRNA SNHG8 regulates the migration and angiogenesis of pHUVECs induced by high glucose via the TRPM7/ERK1/2 signaling axis

This study aimed to evaluate the regulatory effect and molecular mechanism of long noncoding RNA small nucleolus RNA host gene 8 (LncRNA SNHG8) in the migration and angiogenesis of primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (pHUVECs) under high-glucose (HG) conditions. The HG-induced endothelial injury model was established in vitro.The cell model of silencing SNHG8, overexpressing SNHG8, and silencing TRPM7 was established by transfecting SNHG8-siRNA, SNHG8 plasmid and TRPM7-siRNA into cells with liposomes.The SNHG8 level was determined through reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The expression levels of transient receptor potential melastatin 7 (TRPM7), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), p-eNOS, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2(ERK1/2), and p-ERK1/2 were assessed through western blot. Nitric oxide (NO) levels were measured with DAF-FM. pHUVEC migration was examined through wound healing and Transwell assay, and pHUVEC angiogenesis was observed through a tube formation assay. Results showed that HG promoted the expression of lncRNA SNHG8 and TRPM7 and decreased the ratio of p-eNOS/eNOS and p-ERK1/2/ERK1/2 in pHUVECs . NO production, migration , and angiogenesis were inhibited in pHUVECs under HG conditions. Silencing lncRNA SNHG8 and TRPM7 could significantly reverse the HG-induced decrease in eNOS activation, NO production , migration, and angiogenesis . SNHG8 and U0126 (ERK pathway inhibitor) overexpression enhanced the HG effects, whereas using U0126 did not affect the TRPM7 expression. In conclusion, lncRNA SNHG8 participates in HG-induced endothelial cell injury and likely regulates NO production, migration, and angiogenesis of pHUVECs via the TRPM7/ERK1/2 signaling axis.

A review on the role of SNHG8 in human disorders

Small nucleolar RNA host gene 8 (SNHG8) is a long non-coding RNA that has physiological roles in epithelial and muscle satellite cells. This lncRNA has been reported to be over-expressed in a variety of cancer cell lines. Its silencing has attenuated tumor growth in animal models of cancers. SNHG8 can be served as a molecular sponge for some miRNAs to regulate their target genes. miR-634/ZBTB20, miR-335-5p/PYGO2, miR588/ATG7, miR-152/c-MET, miR-1270/BACH1, miR-491/PDGFRA, miR-512-5p/TRIM28, miR-149-5p/PPM1F, miR-542-3p/CCND1/CDK6, miR-656-3p/SERBP1, miR-656-3p/SATB1, miR-1270/S100A11 and miR-384/HOXB7 are examples of molecular axes being regulated by SNHG8 in the context of cancer. Moreover, it can affect pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, chronic cerebral ischemia, acute gouty arthritis, ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction through modulation of a number of molecular axes such as SNHG8/miR-384/Hoxa13/FAM3A and miR-335/RASA1 as well as NF-κB signaling pathway. The current review aims at summarization of the role of SNHG8 in diverse human disorders.

Role of Exosomes and Their Potential as Biomarkers in Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Gastric Cancer

Exosomes are a subtype of extracellular vesicles ranging from 30 to 150 nm and comprising many cellular components, including DNA, RNA, proteins, and metabolites, encapsulated in a lipid bilayer. Exosomes are secreted by many cell types and play important roles in intercellular communication in cancer. Viruses can hijack the exosomal pathway to regulate viral propagation, cellular immunity, and the microenvironment. Cells infected with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), one of the most common oncogenic viruses, have also been found to actively secrete exosomes, and studies on their roles in EBV-related malignancies are ongoing. In this review, we focus on the role of exosomes in EBV-associated gastric cancer and their clinical applicability in diagnosis and treatment.

Long non-coding RNAs in virus-related cancers

Some viral infections lead to tumourigenesis explained by a variety of underlying molecular mechanisms. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have the potential to be added to this list due to their diverse mechanisms in biological functions and disease processes via gene alternation, transcriptional regulation, protein modification, microRNA sponging and interaction with RNA/DNA/proteins. In this review, we summarise the dysregulation and mechanism of lncRNAs in virus-related cancers focussing on Hepatitis B virus, Epstein-Barr virus, Human Papillomavirus. We will also discuss the potential implications of lncRNAs in COVID-19.

The Emerging Role of Non-Coding RNAs in the Regulation of Virus Replication and Resultant Cellular Pathologies

Non-coding RNAs, particularly lncRNAs and miRNAs, have recently been shown to regulate different steps in viral infections and induction of immune responses against viruses. Expressions of several host and viral lncRNAs have been found to be altered during viral infection. These lncRNAs can exert antiviral function via inhibition of viral infection or stimulation of antiviral immune response. Some other lncRNAs can promote viral replication or suppress antiviral responses. The current review summarizes the interaction between ncRNAs and herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, and Epstein–Barr infections. The data presented in this review helps identify viral-related regulators and proposes novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of viral infection.

Long noncoding RNA SNHG8 accelerates acute gouty arthritis development by upregulating AP3D1 in mice

Gout can affect the quality of life of patients due to monosodium urate monohydrate (MSU) crystals. Numerous studies have proposed that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) regulate gout. We aimed to reveal the function of lncRNA small nucleolar RNA host gene 8 (SNHG8) in acute gouty arthritis (GA). A GA mouse model was established by injection of MSU into footpads. The levels of SNHG8, miR-542-3p and adaptor-related protein complex 3 subunit delta 1 (AP3D1) in footpads were detected via polymerase chain reaction analysis. Hematoxylin–eosin staining revealed the paw swelling in mice. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and western blot analysis were applied to determine the concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines. SNHG8 expression was identified to be upregulated after MSU treatment. Ablation of SNHG8 decreased the MSU-induced enhancement of paw swelling and foot thickness. In addition, SNHG8 depletion decreased the protein levels of proinflammatory factors in GA mice. Mechanically, SNHG8 was verified to be a sponge of miR-542-3p, and miR-542-3p targeted AP3D1 3ʹ untranslated region. SNHG8 competitively bound with miR-542-3p to upregulate AP3D1 expression. Finally, results of rescue assays illustrated that AP3D1 upregulation offset the SNHG8-mediated inhibition on paw swelling and protein levels of proinflammatory factors in GA mice. In conclusion, SNHG8 accelerates acute GA development by upregulating AP3D1 in an miR-542-3p-dependent way in mice, providing an effective therapeutic approach to treat acute GA.

SNHG8 Promotes the Progression of Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Gastric Cancer via Sponging miR-512-5p and Targeting TRIM28

SNHG8, a family member of small nucleolar RNA host genes (SNHG), has been reported to act as an oncogene in gastric carcinoma (GC). However, its biological function in Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)-associated gastric cancer (EBVaGC) remains unclear. This study investigated the role of SNHG8 in EBVaGC. Sixty-one cases of EBVaGC, 20 cases of non-EBV-infected gastric cancer (EBVnGC), and relative cell lines were studied for the expression of SNHG8 and BHRF1 (BCL2 homolog reading frame 1) encoded by EBV with Western blot and qRT-PCR assays. The relationship between the expression levels of SNHG8 and the clinical outcome in 61 EBVaGC cases was analyzed. Effects of overexpression or knockdown of BHRF1, SNHG8, or TRIM28 on cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and cell cycle and the related molecules were determined by several assays, including cell proliferation, colony assay, wound healing assay, transwell invasion assay, cell circle with flow cytometry, qRT-PCR, and Western blot for expression levels. The interactions among SNHG8, miR-512-5p, and TRIM28 were determined with Luciferase reporter assay, RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP), pull-down assays, and Western blot assay. The in vivo activity of SNHG8 was assessed with SNHG8 knockdown tumor xenografts in zebrafish. Results demonstrated that the following. (1) BHRF1 and SNHG8 were overexpressed in EBV-encoded RNA 1-positive EBVaGC tissues and cell lines. BHRF1 upregulated the expressions of SNHG8 and TRIM28 in AGS. (2) SNHG8 overexpression had a significant correlation with tumor size and vascular tumor thrombus. Patients with high SNHG8 expression had poorer overall survival (OS) compared to those with low SNHG8 expression. (3) SNHG8 overexpression promoted EBVaGC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro and in vivo, cell cycle arrested at the G2/M phase via the activation of BCL-2, CCND1, PCNA, PARP1, CDH1, CDH2 VIM, and Snail. (4) Results of dual-luciferase reporter assay, RNA immunoprecipitation, and pull-down assays indicated that SNHG8 sponged miR-512-5p, which targeted on TRIM28 and promoted cancer malignant behaviors of EBVaGC cells. Our data suggest that BHRF1 triggered the expression of SNHG8, which sponged miR-512-5p and upregulated TRIM28 and a set of effectors (such as BCL-2, CCND1, CDH1, CDH2 Snail, and VIM) to promote EBVaGC tumorigenesis and invasion. SNHG8 could be an independent prognostic factor for EBVaGC and sever as target for EBVaGC therapy.

Differentiated expression of long non-coding RNA-small nucleolar RNA host gene 8 in atherosclerosis and its molecular mechanism

Atherosclerosis (AS) is one of the most common cardiovascular diseases, and the incidence is increasing year by year. Many studies have shown that long non-coding RNA plays a vital role in the pathogenesis of AS. This study aimed to explore the role and mechanism of lncRNA-small nucleolar RNA host gene 8 (SNHG8) in AS. The expressions of serum lncSNHG8 and miR-224-3p were determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The diagnostic meaning of lncSNHG8 in AS was estimated by Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. The correlation between lncSNHG8 and various clinical indicators, as well as miR-244-3p was evaluated by Pearson correlation coefficient analysis. Cell proliferation and migration were estimated by cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) and Transwell assay. The interaction between lncSNHG8 and miR-224-3p was proved by luciferase reporter gene assay. The expression level of lncSNHG8 was increased in AS patients, while miR-224-3p expression was decreased. The ROC curve indicated that lncSNHG8 with high serum expression had the ability to distinguish AS. Pearson correlation coefficient exhibited that the level of miR-224-3p was negatively correlated with the level of lncSNHG8. The results of cell experiments indicated that inhibition of the expression of lncSNHG8 significantly inhibited the proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Luciferase reporter gene experiments confirmed that there was a target relationship between lncSNHG8 and miR-224-3p. In conclusion, lncSNHG8 had high diagnostic value for AS. It promoted the proliferation and migration of VSMCs by adsorption and inhibition of miR-224-3p.

MicroRNA and Other Non-Coding RNAs in Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Cancers

EBV is a direct causative agent in around 1.5% of all cancers. The oncogenic properties of EBV are related to its ability to activate processes needed for cellular proliferation, survival, migration, and immune evasion. The EBV latency program is required for the immortalization of infected B cells and involves the expression of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including viral microRNAs. These ncRNAs have different functions that contribute to virus persistence in the asymptomatic host and to the development of EBV-associated cancers. In this review, we discuss the function and potential clinical utility of EBV microRNAs and other ncRNAs in EBV-associated malignancies. This review is not intended to be comprehensive, but rather to provide examples of the importance of ncRNAs.

LncRNA TP73-AS1 promotes the development of Epstein-Barr virus associated gastric cancer by recruiting PRC2 complex to regulate WIF1 methylation

BACKGROUND

Epstein-Barr virus associated gastric cancer (EBVaGC) become a growing health problem. TP73-AS1 showed high expression in EBVaGC cells. However, the function role and underlying mechanism of TP73-AS1 need further exploration.

METHODS

The expressions of TP73-AS1, WIF1, EZH2, β-catenin and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related proteins were detected using qRT-PCR and Western blotting. Cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration and invasion were measured by CCK-8, colony formation, flow cytometry, wound healing and transwell assays, respectively. WIF1 promoter methylation was analyzed by MS-PCR (MSP). RNA immunoprecipitation assay (RIP) and Chromatin immunoprecipitation assay (ChIP) measured the interactions of TP73-AS1/EZH2 and EZH2/WIF1. Subcutaneous tumor growth was monitored in nude mice and immunohistochemistry (IHC) detected proliferation marker Ki-67 expression.

RESULTS

TP73-AS1 was increased while WIF1 was decreased in EBVaGC cells. Silencing of TP73-AS1 or overexpression of WIF1 repressed the growth and migration while promoted apoptosis of EBVaGC cells. Knockdown of WIF1 reversed the anticancer effect of TP73-AS1 silencing. TP73-AS1 promoted the binding of EZH2 to the WIF1 promoter by directly binding to EZH2, and thus inhibiting the expression of WIF1 by enhancing H3K27me3 level of WIF1 promoter. Moreover, TP73-AS1 activated Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway and promoted EMT by down-regulating WIF1. TP73-AS1 silencing inhibited the progression of EBVaGC in nude mice by epigenetically regulating WIF1.

CONCLUSION

TP73-AS1 regulated the promoter methylation of WIF1 by recruiting PRC2 complex to WIF1 promoter region, thereby promoting the progression of EBVaGC. These observations provided a novel theoretical basis to investigate more effective therapies of EBVaGC.

Long non-coding RNAs and microorganism-associated cancers

Cancerous cells are abnormal cells characterized by aberrant growth and proliferation, which can involve various types of cells and tissues. Through numerous signalling pathways, many mechanisms are involved in cells that keep them normal. These signalling pathways are tightly set by different proteins whose expression is regulated by a large number of factors. In other words, when a regulating factor does not act properly or undergoes a change in its function or expression, the result will be that the subordinate gene and subsequently the related protein will show deranged expression and activity. This leads to disordered signalling pathways which bring about uncontrolled proliferation in cells. One of the most significant factors in adjusting the expression of genes is noncoding RNAs. It should be noted that all underlying causes initiating malignancy try to alter the main regulatory factors in cellular processes and gene expression and direct the cell to an unregulated state. Microorganisms have been identified as one of the important elements to direct normal cells to abnormality. That is, they probably agitate the malignant traits through manipulating significant factors such as ncRNAs in given cells using their own or host-related factors. The present study is aimed at examining how the long noncoding RNAs are involved in microorganism-mediated cancers.

FGGA-lnc: automatic gene ontology annotation of lncRNA sequences based on secondary structures

The study of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), greater than 200 nucleotides, is central to understanding the development and progression of many complex diseases. Unlike proteins, the functionality of lncRNAs is only subtly encoded in their primary sequence. Current in-silico lncRNA annotation methods mostly rely on annotations inferred from interaction networks. But extensive experimental studies are required to build these networks. In this work, we present a graph-based machine learning method called FGGA-lnc for the automatic gene ontology (GO) annotation of lncRNAs across the three GO subdomains. We build upon FGGA (factor graph GO annotation), a computational method originally developed to annotate protein sequences from non-model organisms. In the FGGA-lnc version, a coding-based approach is introduced to fuse primary sequence and secondary structure information of lncRNA molecules. As a result, lncRNA sequences become sequences of a higher-order alphabet allowing supervised learning methods to assess individual GO-term annotations. Raw GO annotations obtained in this way are unaware of the GO structure and therefore likely to be inconsistent with it. The message-passing algorithm embodied by factor graph models overcomes this problem. Evaluations of the FGGA-lnc method on lncRNA data, from model and non-model organisms, showed promising results suggesting it as a candidate to satisfy the huge demand for functional annotations arising from high-throughput sequencing technologies.

Long non-coding RNAs in Epstein-Barr virus-related cancer

Epstein Barr-virus (EBV) is related to several cancers. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) act by regulating target genes and are involved in tumourigenesis. However, the role of lncRNAs in EBV-associated cancers is rarely reported. Understanding the role and mechanism of lncRNAs in EBV-associated cancers may contribute to diagnosis, prognosis and clinical therapy in the future. EBV encodes not only miRNAs, but also BART lncRNAs during latency and the BHLF1 lncRNA during both the latent and lytic phases. These lncRNAs can be targeted regulate inflammation, invasion, and migration and thus tumourigenesis. The products of EBV also directly and indirectly regulate host lncRNAs, including LINC00312, NORAD CYTOR, SHNG8, SHNG5, MINCR, lncRNA-BC200, LINC00672, MALATI1, LINC00982, LINC02067, IGFBP7-AS1, LOC100505716, LOC100128494, NAG7 and RP4-794H19.1, to facilitate tumourigenesis using different mechanisms. Additionally, lncRNAs have been previously validated to interact with microRNAs (miRNAs), and lncRNAs and miRNAs mutually suppress each other. The EBV-miR-BART6-3p/LOC553103/STMN1 axis inhibits EBV-associated tumour cell proliferation. Additionally, H. pylori-EBV co-infection promotes inflammatory lesions and results in EMT. HPV-EBV co-infection inhibits the transition from latency to lytic replication. KSHV-EBV co-infection aggravates tumourigenesis in huNSG mice. COVID-19-EBV co-infection may activate the immune system to destroy a tumour, although this situation is rare and the mechanism requires further confirmation. Hopefully, this information will shed some light on tumour therapy strategies tumourigenesis. Additionally, this strategy benefits for infected patients by preventing latency to lytic replication. Understanding the role and expression of lnRNAs in these two phases of EBV is critical to control the transition from latency to the lytic replication phase. This review presents differential expressed lncRNAs in EBV-associated cancers and provides resources to aid in developing superior strategies for clinical therapy.

Small nucleolar RNA host gene 8: A rising star in the targets for cancer therapy

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a group of transcripts that have been considered essential participants in cancer pathogenesis and progression over the past few decades. Small nucleolar RNA host gene 8 (SNHG8) is a newly discovered lncRNA that belongs to the SNHG family, a group of transcripts that can be processed into small nucleolar RNAs and exert important biological functions. As an oncogenic factor, SNHG8 is upregulated in multiple cancer types. Herein, we summarize the biological role of SNHG8 in different cancer types and the underlying mechanisms related to the interaction between SNHG8 and microRNAs, mRNAs, and proteins. In addition, this study emphasizes the clinical value of SNHG8 in cancer, hoping to provide new insights into cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment.

Screening and identification of key genes in EBV-associated gastric carcinoma based on bioinformatics analysis

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is closely related to gastric carcinoma (GC). In this study, we identified a set of DEGs (different expression genes) between EBVaGC (EBV-associated gastric carcinoma) and EBVnGC (EBV-negative gastric carcinoma) through multiple bioinformatics analysis using the data from GEO (Gene Expression Omnibus) dataset GSE51575, and identified ten hub genes (CXCL10, C3, CXCL9, CXCL11, SST, ICAM1, CHRM2, NPY, GBP5 and GBP1). Therefore, we performed relevant survival analysis and immune infiltration analysis, then verified the mRNA expression in GC cell lines and TCGA database. CXCL11 was finally selected to be a potential biomarker for a better prognosis and tumor infiltrating. This may provide a new view about immune therapy for EBVaGC.

A review on epigenetic effects of environmental factors causing and inhibiting cancer

Epigenetic modifications refer to reversible changes in gene expression. Epigenetic changes include DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNAs that are collectively called epigenome. Various epigenetic effects account for the main impacts of environment and lifestyle on multifactorial diseases such as cancers. The environment's impacts on cancers act as double-edged swords. While some of them are involved in cancer development, some others contribute to preventing it. In this review article, the keywords 'cancer', 'epigenetic', 'lifestyle', 'carcinogen', ' cancer inhibitors" and related words were searched to finding a link between environmental factors and epigenetic mechanisms influencing cancer in ISI, PUBMED, SCOPUS, and Google Scholar databases. Based on the literature environmental factors that are effective in cancer development or cancer prevention in this review will be divided into physical, chemical, biological, and lifestyle types. Different types of epigenetic mechanisms known for each of these agents will be addressed in this review. Unregulated changes in epigenome play roles in tumorigenicity and cancer development. The action mechanism and genes targeted which are related to the signaling pathway for epigenetic alterations determine whether environmental agents are carcinogenic or prevent cancer. Having knowledge about the effective factors and related mechanisms such as epigenetic on cancer can help to prevent and better cancers treatment.

Long Non-coding RNAs in Gammaherpesvirus Infections: Their Roles in Tumorigenic Mechanisms

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) regulate gene expression at the epigenetic, transcriptional, or posttranscriptional level by interacting with protein, DNA, and RNA. Emerging evidence suggests that various lncRNAs are abnormally expressed and play indispensable roles in virus-triggered cancers. Besides, a growing number of studies have shown that virus-encoded lncRNAs participate in tumorigenesis. However, the functions of most lncRNAs in tumors caused by oncogenic viruses and their underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. In this review, we summarize current findings regarding lncRNAs involved in cancers caused by Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi’s sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV). Additionally, we discuss the contribution of lncRNAs to tumor occurrence, development, invasion, and metastasis; the roles of lncRNAs in key signaling pathways and their potential as biomarkers and therapeutic targets for tumor diagnostics and treatment.

Long noncoding RNAs involvement in Epstein-Barr virus infection and tumorigenesis

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous γ-herpesvirus related to various types of cancers, including epithelial nasopharyngeal carcinoma, gastric carcinoma, and lymphoma. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are expressed extensively in mammalian cells and play crucial roles in regulating various cellular processes and multiple cancers. Cellular lncRNAs can be differentially expressed induced by EBV infection. The dysregulated lncRNAs probably modulate the host immune response and other biological functions. At present, lncRNAs have been found to be significantly increased or decreased in EBV-infected cells, exosomes and EBV-associated cancers, suggesting their potential function and clinical application as biomarkers. In addition, EBV-encoded lncRNAs, BART and BHLF1 lncRNAs, may play roles in the viral oncogenesis. Analysis of the specific lncRNAs involved in interactions with the EBV machinery will provide information on their potential mechanism of action during multiple steps of EBV tumorigenesis. Here, we review the current knowledge regarding EBV-related lncRNAs and their possible roles in the pathogenesis of EBV-associated cancers.

LncRNAs as potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in gastric cancer: A novel approach to personalized medicine

Gastric cancer is the third leading cause of cancer death with 5-year survival rate of about 30-35%. Since early detection is associated with decreased mortality, identification of novel biomarkers for early diagnosis and proper management of patients with the best response to therapy is urgently needed. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) due to their high specificity, easy accessibility in a noninvasive manner, as well as their aberrant expression under different pathological and physiological conditions, have received a great attention as potential diagnostic, prognostic, or predictive biomarkers. They may also serve as targets for treating gastric cancer. In this review, we highlighted the role of lncRNAs as tumor suppressors or oncogenes that make them potential biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of gastric cancer. Relatively, lncRNAs such as H19, HOTAIR, UCA1, PVT1, tissue differentiation-inducing nonprotein coding, and LINC00152 could be potential diagnostic and prognostic markers in patients with gastric cancer. Also, the impact of lncRNAs such as ecCEBPA, MLK7-AS1, TUG1, HOXA11-AS, GAPLINC, LEIGC, multidrug resistance-related and upregulated lncRNA, PVT1 on gastric cancer epigenetic and drug resistance as well as their potential as therapeutic targets for personalized medicine was discussed.

Long non-coding RNA signature in gastric cancer

Gastric cancer as a common human malignancy has been associated with aberrant expressions of several coding and non-coding genes. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) as regulators of gene expressions at different genomic, transcriptomic and post-transcriptomic levels are among putative biomarkers and therapeutic targets in gastric cancer. In the present study, we have searched available literature and listed lncRNAs that are involved in the pathogenesis of gastric cancer. In addition, we discuss associations between expressions of these lncRNAs and tumoral features or risk factors for gastric cancer. Based on the established role of lncRNAs in regulation of genomic stability, cell cycle, apoptosis, angiogenesis and other aspects of cell physiology, the potential of these transcripts as therapeutic targets in gastric cancer should be evaluated in future studies.

The fasting blood glucose and long non-coding RNA SNHG8 predict poor prognosis in patients with gastric carcinoma after radical gastrectomy

This prospective study sought to evaluate the prediction of fasting blood glucose and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) SNHG8 for the risk of gastric carcinoma mortality. A total of 217 gastric carcinoma patients underwent radical gastrectomy were included during 2012-16. The final follow-up was finished in January 2017. The aggregate hazard ratio(HR) demonstrated that poor prognosis of gastric carcinoma was associated with fasting blood glucose (HR= 1.29, P=0.037), SNHG8 expression(HR = 1.10, P= 0.009), positive distant metastasis(HR = 2.99, P= 0.020), EBV positive (HR = 3.40, P=0.002), and tumor size more than 5.0 cm (HR = 3.36, P= 0.005). In survival analysis, elevated fasting blood glucose (P =0.007) and high SNHG8 expression (P =0.007) were significantly associated with shorter survival times in gastric cancer. Significant multiplicative interaction was shown between fasting blood glucose and SNHG8 expression (chi-squared=7.81, P_{multiplicative} =0.005), without statistical additive interaction. Fasting blood glucose and SNHG8 expression could predict poor prognosis after radical gastrectomy. LncRNA SNHG8 could be applied as a novel epigenetic molecular target in gastric carcinoma.

Knockdown of SNHG8 repressed the growth, migration, and invasion of colorectal cancer cells by directly sponging with miR-663

Aberrant expression of SNHG8 has been observed in some types of cancers. However, whether SNHG8 was aberrantly expressed in colorectal cancer and whether it could exert any function on the development of colorectal cancer remains largely elusive. In this study, we first investigated the expression pattern and biological function of SNHG8 in colorectal cancer. The expression level of SNHG8 was investigated in colorectal cancer tissues as well as in colorectal cancer cell lines by real-time PCR. Next, CCK8 assays were performed to evaluate the effects of SNHG8 on the proliferation of colorectal cancer cells and transwell assays were employed to evaluate migration and invasion. Bioinformatics were used for predicting the sponging miRNAs that interact with SNHG8. A dual luciferase reporter assay was adopted for the verification of interaction between SNHG8 and miRNA. Our data showed that SNHG8 was significantly up-regulated in colorectal cancer tissues and cell lines. In addition, knockdown of SNHG8 significantly inhibited the growth, migration, and invasion of colorectal cancer cells. It was predicted that miR-663 might interact with SNHG8 and the direct sponging was verified by dual luciferase reporter assay. Moreover, rescue experiments revealed that SNHG8 played a tumor promoting role by regulating miR-663. In the present study, we revealed that SNHG8 was up-regulated in colorectal cancer and promoted the proliferation, migration, and invasion of colorectal cancer by sponging miR-663, which helps to further reveal the underlying developmental mechanism of action and provides a potential therapeutic molecule for colorectal cancer therapy in the future.

Transcriptome‑wide piRNA profiling in human gastric cancer

Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) comprise the largest class of non-coding RNAs. They represent a molecular feature shared by all non-aging biological systems, including germline and somatic cancer stem cells, which display an indefinite capacity of renewal and proliferation and are potentially immortal. They have been identified in animal stomachs, but their relationship with human gastric cancers remains largely unclear. The present study aimed to identify the piRNAs associated with human gastric cancers across the whole transcriptome. Fresh tumor tissues and adjacent non-tumorous tissues from stomachs were examined using a piRNA microarray (23,677 piRNAs) that was then validated by qPCR. The differential expression of piRNAs between cases and controls was analyzed. The transposable elements (TEs) that are potentially targeted by the risk piRNAs were searched. The expression of the nearest genes that are complementary to the sequences of the piRNAs was examined in the stomach tissue. The regulatory effects of genome-wide significant and replicated cancer-risk DNA variants on the piRNA expression in stomach were tested. Based on the findings, we identified a total of 8,759 piRNAs in human stomachs. Of all, 50 were significantly (P<0.05) and differentially (>2-fold change) expressed between the cases and controls, and 64.7% of the protein-coding genes potentially regulated by the gastric cancer-associated piRNAs were expressed in the human stomach. The expression of many cancer-associated piRNAs was correlated with the genome-wide and replicated cancer-risk SNPs. In conclusion, we conclude that piRNAs are abundant in human stomachs and may play important roles in the etiological processes of gastric cancers.

SNHG8 is identified as a key regulator in non-small-cell lung cancer progression sponging to miR-542-3p by targeting CCND1/CDK6

Background

Recently, various dynamically expressed lncRNAs are known to play critical roles in cancer progression. Small nucleolar RNA host genes (SNHG), a stable cytoplasmic lncRNA, which have been widely reported to act as an oncogene in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). As an important member of SNHG, SNHG8 have been suggested to over-expressed in several cancer disease, while the biological function in NSCLC remains unclear.

Purpose

Here we investigated the biological function and underlying mechanism of SNHG8 in human NSCLC.

Patients and methods

The relationship between SNHG8 expression and clinicopathologic characteristic in NSCLC patients were observed from January 2014 to December 2014 in 120 NSCLC patients. The expression of SNHG8 were analyzed by qRT-PCR assay in cancer tissues and cells. Cell proliferation ability were detected in NSCLC cells by CCK-8 assay. Flow cytometric analysis were performed to detected the cell apoptosis and cell cycle. Luciferase assay and Western blot assay were performed on NSCLC cells to detected the underlying mechanism of SNHG8 in NSCLC. Moreover, Tumor xenografts in nude mice were performed to detected the in vivo function of SNHG8.

Results

SNHG8 was over-expressed in NSCLC tissues and cells. Patients with high SNHG8 expression have poorer overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) than the patients with low SNHG8 expression. SNHG8 knockdown inhibited NSCLC cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo, arrested cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase via targeting miR-542-3p/CCND1/ CDK6, and induced cell apoptosis via activation of Caspase-3.

Conclusion

SNHG8 negatively regulated miR-542-3p in NSCLC progression by regulating downstream effectors including CCND1 and CDK6. SNHG8 showed great potential for the application in the treatment of NSCLC.

Identification of synthetic lethality based on a functional network by using machine learning algorithms

Synthetic lethality is the synthesis of mutations leading to cell death. Tumor-specific synthetic lethality has been targeted in research to improve cancer therapy. With the advances of techniques in molecular biology, such as RNAi and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing, efforts have been made to systematically identify synthetic lethal interactions, especially for frequently mutated genes in cancers. However, elucidating the mechanism of synthetic lethality remains a challenge because of the complexity of its influencing conditions. In this study, we proposed a new computational method to identify critical functional features that can accurately predict synthetic lethal interactions. This method incorporates several machine learning algorithms and encodes protein-coding genes by an enrichment system derived from gene ontology terms and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways to represent their functional features. We built a random forest-based prediction engine by using 2120 selected features and obtained a Matthews correlation coefficient of 0.532. We examined the top 15 features and found that most of them have potential roles in synthetic lethality according to previous studies. These results demonstrate the ability of our proposed method to predict synthetic lethal interactions and provide a basis for further characterization of these particular genetic combinations.

Knockdown of SNHG15 suppresses renal cell carcinoma proliferation and EMT by regulating the NF-κB signaling pathway

Aberrant expression of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) is associated with cancer tumorigenesis and progression. It has been suggested that lncRNAs may be potential clinical diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, and therapeutic targets. In the present study, the expression levels of small nucleolar RNA host gene 15 (SNHG15) were significantly upregulated in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) tissues and cell lines compared with in adjacent tissues and a proximal tubule epithelial cell line, as determined by reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Subsequently, knockdown of SNHG15 expression with small interfering RNA inhibited RCC proliferation, invasion and migration, was determined by western blotting and Transwell assays. Furthermore, the present study suggested that SNHG15 may be involved in the nuclear factor‑κB signaling pathway, induce the epithelial‑mesenchymal transition process, and promote RCC invasion and migration.

Knockdown of the lncRNA SNHG8 inhibits cell growth in Epstein-Barr virus-associated gastric carcinoma

Background

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is causatively associated with a variety of human cancers, including gastric cancer (GC), which has one of the highest mortality rates of all human cancers. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) show important regulatory roles in human GC. SNHG8 is a recently identified lncRNA that was reported to show abnormal expression pattern in GC. However, little is known of its biological function in EBV-associated GC.

Methods

We used cell viability, colony formation and cell cycle assays to investigate the roles of lncRNA SNHG8 in the cell growth of EBV-associated GC.

Results

The transcript levels of SNHG8 in the cultured EBV-associated GC cells were significantly higher in the cultured EBV-associated GC cells compared with the levels in normal human gastric mucosal cells and EBV-negative GC cells. Knockdown of SNHG8 with specific shRNAs inhibited cell proliferation and colony formation and arrested the cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase in vitro. We also found that knockdown of SNHG8 suppressed tumor growth in vivo.

Conclusions

These data indicate the pro-oncogenic potential of SNHG8 in EBV-associated GC, meaning it is a latent therapeutic target for the treatment of this type of cancer.

Forkhead Box M1 Transcriptionally Regulates the Expression of Long Noncoding RNAs Snhg8 and Gm26917 to Promote Proliferation and Survival of Muscle Satellite Cells

Multiple functions have been proposed for transcription factor FoxM1, including the regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, senescence, apoptosis, and tissue homeostasis. However, the role of FoxM1 in muscle satellite cells (SCs) remains unclear. In the present study, we demonstrated that FoxM1 was essential for the proliferation and survival of SCs. Crucially, we found that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) Snhg8 and Gm26917 significantly regulated the proliferation and apoptosis of SCs, respectively, and these lncRNAs were directly regulated by FoxM1 in SCs. Mechanistically, Snhg8 sustained SCs proliferation by promoting the transcription of ribosomal proteins, while Gm26917 acted as a competing endogenous RNA for microRNA-29b, which accelerated apoptosis of SCs. In mice, conditional knockout of FoxM1 in skeletal muscle resulted in decreased proliferation and increased apoptosis of SCs. Thus, our studies revealed a previously unrecognized role of FoxM1 in SCs and uncovered two lncRNAs, Snhg8 and Gm26917, which function as novel targets of FoxM1 in the regulation of SCs proliferation and survival. Stem Cells 2018;36:1097-1108.

Platelet RNA signatures for the detection of cancer

Platelets are equipped with RNA processing machineries, such as pre-mRNA splicing, pre-miRNA processing, and mRNA translation. Since platelets are devoid of a nucleus, most RNA transcripts in platelets are derived from megakaryocytes during thrombocytogenesis. However, platelets can also ingest RNA molecules during circulation and/or interaction with other cell types. Since platelets were first described by Bizzozero in 1881, their well-established role in hemostasis and thrombosis has been intensively studied. However, in the past decades, the list of biological processes in which platelets play an important role keeps expanding. In this review, we discuss how platelet RNA biomarker signatures can be altered in the presence of cancer.

Outlooks on Epstein-Barr virus associated gastric cancer

Epstein-Barr virus associated gastric cancer (EBVaGC) comprises approximately 10% of gastric carcinomas. Multiple factors contribute to tumorigenesis, including EBV driven hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes, inflammatory changes in gastric mucosa, host immune evasion by EBV and changes in cell cycle pathways. The unique molecular characteristics of EBVaGC, such as programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) overexpression, highlight the potential for using EBV as a biomarker for response to immunotherapy. Few studies have reported benefit from immunotherapy in EBV positive cancers, and clinical trials investigating the impact of checkpoint inhibitors in EBVaGC are currently underway. This review provides the most recent updates on molecular pathophysiology, epidemiology, clinical features and treatment advances pertaining to EBVaGC.

Crosstalk between prognostic long noncoding RNAs and messenger RNAs as transcriptional hallmarks in gastric cancer

AIM

Our study investigated the significance of the crosstalk between long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and mRNAs in gastric cancer (GC).

METHODS

lncRNA and mRNA expression profiling data in 671 GC tumors and 77 nontumorous gastric tissues were retrieved from the gene expression omnibus database: GSE54129, GSE13911, GSE19826, GSE79973, GSE15459 and GSE66229. Differentially expressed analysis, RNA coexpression network construction, gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses were conducted in this study.

RESULTS

Using differentially expressed and prognostic lncRNAs or mRNAs in GC, we constructed the lncRNA-mRNA coexpression networks. This network involved with vital GO and KEGG pathways.

CONCLUSION

Our study reveals coexpressed lncRNAs and mRNAs as transcriptional hallmarks in GC patients which provide interesting information regarding the incidence and outcome of GC.

Identification of the functional alteration signatures across different cancer types with support vector machine and feature analysis

Cancers are regarded as malignant proliferations of tumor cells present in many tissues and organs, which can severely curtail the quality of human life. The potential of using plasma DNA for cancer detection has been widely recognized, leading to the need of mapping the tissue-of-origin through the identification of somatic mutations. With cutting-edge technologies, such as next-generation sequencing, numerous somatic mutations have been identified, and the mutation signatures have been uncovered across different cancer types. However, somatic mutations are not independent events in carcinogenesis but exert functional effects. In this study, we applied a pan-cancer analysis to five types of cancers: (I) breast cancer (BRCA), (II) colorectal adenocarcinoma (COADREAD), (III) head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSC), (IV) kidney renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC), and (V) ovarian cancer (OV). Based on the mutated genes of patients suffering from one of the aforementioned cancer types, patients they were encoded into a large number of numerical values based upon the enrichment theory of gene ontology (GO) terms and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways. We analyzed these features with the Monte-Carlo Feature Selection (MCFS) method, followed by the incremental feature selection (IFS) method to identify functional alteration features that could be used to build the support vector machine (SVM)-based classifier for distinguishing the five types of cancers. Our results showed that the optimal classifier with the selected 344 features had the highest Matthews correlation coefficient value of 0.523. Sixteen decision rules produced by the MCFS method can yield an overall accuracy of 0.498 for the classification of the five cancer types. Further analysis indicated that some of these features and rules were supported by previous experiments. This study not only presents a new approach to mapping the tissue-of-origin for cancer detection but also unveils the specific functional alterations of each cancer type, providing insight into cancer-specific functional aberrations as potential therapeutic targets. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Accelerating Precision Medicine through Genetic and Genomic Big Data Analysis edited by Yudong Cai & Tao Huang.

Prediction and analysis of essential genes using the enrichments of gene ontology and KEGG pathways

Identifying essential genes in a given organism is important for research on their fundamental roles in organism survival. Furthermore, if possible, uncovering the links between core functions or pathways with these essential genes will further help us obtain deep insight into the key roles of these genes. In this study, we investigated the essential and non-essential genes reported in a previous study and extracted gene ontology (GO) terms and biological pathways that are important for the determination of essential genes. Through the enrichment theory of GO and KEGG pathways, we encoded each essential/non-essential gene into a vector in which each component represented the relationship between the gene and one GO term or KEGG pathway. To analyze these relationships, the maximum relevance minimum redundancy (mRMR) was adopted. Then, the incremental feature selection (IFS) and support vector machine (SVM) were employed to extract important GO terms and KEGG pathways. A prediction model was built simultaneously using the extracted GO terms and KEGG pathways, which yielded nearly perfect performance, with a Matthews correlation coefficient of 0.951, for distinguishing essential and non-essential genes. To fully investigate the key factors influencing the fundamental roles of essential genes, the 21 most important GO terms and three KEGG pathways were analyzed in detail. In addition, several genes was provided in this study, which were predicted to be essential genes by our prediction model. We suggest that this study provides more functional and pathway information on the essential genes and provides a new way to investigate related problems.

Long Noncoding RNA AFAP1-AS1 Promotes Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis of Gastric Cancer Cells via PTEN/p-AKT Pathway

BACKGROUND

Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) plays critical roles in both tumor-suppressive and oncogenic pathways in the pathological development and prognosis of cancers.

AIMS

This study aimed to explore the expression of lncRNA AFAP1-AS1 and its function in gastric cancer (GC).

METHODS

The expression of AFAP1-AS1 was detected in GC tissues and GC cells by quantitative real-time reverse-transcription PCR. A small interfering RNA (siRNA) that targeted AFAP1-AS1 was transfected into cells to inhibit the expression of AFAP1-AS1. MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay and colony formation assay were performed to examine the cell proliferation of SGC7901 cell transfected with si-AFAP1-AS1. Cell apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry. The protein level of cleaved PARP, Caspase 3, Caspase 9, Caspase 8, Bcl-2, Bax, p-AKT, total-AKT, and PTEN were detected by Western blot.

RESULTS

AFAP1-AS1 was up-regulated in GC tissues and GC cells. AFAP1-AS1 knockdown suppressed cell viability of SGC7901 transfected with si-AFAP1-AS1. The number of apoptotic SGC7901 cell transfected with si-AFAP1-AS1 was increased by 3.4-fold comparing to that of control. The protein level of cleaved PARP, Caspase 3, and Caspase 9 were increased in SGC7901 transfected with si-AFAP1-AS1, as well as the expression of Bax. The protein level of Bcl-2 was decreased. AFAP1-AS1 knockdown decreased the protein level of p-AKT and increased the expression of PTEN in SGC7901 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

AFAP1-AS1 was up-regulated in GC cells and regulated the gastric cancer cell proliferation and apoptosis via PTEN/p-AKT pathway.

The Role of Epigenetic Regulation in Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Gastric Cancer

The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is detected in about 10% of gastric carcinoma cases throughout the world. In EBV-associated gastric carcinoma (EBVaGC), all tumor cells harbor the clonal EBV genome. The expression of latent EBV genes is strictly regulated through the methylation of EBV DNA. The methylation of viral DNA regulates the type of EBV latency, and methylation of the tumor suppressor genes is a key abnormality in EBVaGC. The methylation frequencies of several tumor suppressor genes and cell adhesion molecules are significantly higher in EBVaGC than in control cases. EBV-derived microRNAs repress translation from viral and host mRNAs. EBV regulates the expression of non-coding RNA in gastric carcinoma. With regard to the clinical application of demethylating agents against EBVaGC, we investigated the effects of decitabine against the EBVaGC cell lines. Decitabine inhibited the cell growth of EBVaGC cells. The promoter regions of p73 and Runt-related transcription factor 3(RUNX3) were demethylated, and their expression was upregulated by the treatment. We review the role of epigenetic regulation in the development and maintenance of EBVaGC and discuss the therapeutic application of DNA demethylating agents for EBVaGC.

Characterization of the subcellular localization of Epstein-Barr virus encoded proteins in live cells

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is the pathogenic factor of numerous human tumors, yet certain of its encoded proteins have not been studied. As a first step for functional identification, we presented the construction of a library of expression constructs for most of the EBV encoded proteins and an explicit subcellular localization map of 81 proteins encoded by EBV in mammalian cells. Viral open reading frames were fused with enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP) tag in eukaryotic expression plasmid then expressed in COS-7 live cells, and protein localizations were observed by fluorescence microscopy. As results, 34.57% (28 proteins) of all proteins showed pan-nuclear or subnuclear localization, 39.51% (32 proteins) exhibitted pan-cytoplasmic or subcytoplasmic localization, and 25.93% (21 proteins) were found in both the nucleus and cytoplasm. Interestingly, most envelope proteins presented pan-cytoplasmic or membranous localization, and most capsid proteins displayed enriched or complete localization in the nucleus, indicating that the subcellular localization of specific proteins are associated with their roles during viral replication. Taken together, the subcellular localization map of EBV proteins in live cells may lay the foundation for further illustrating the functions of EBV-encoded genes in human diseases especially in its relevant tumors.